Capital n small letters

ɴ - Latin Letter Small Capital N: U+0274

U+0274

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Technical information

Name	Latin Letter Small Capital N
Unicode number	U+0274
HTML-code	ɴ
CSS-code	\0274
Block	IPA Extensions
Unicode version:	1. 1 (1993)

Symbol meaning

Latin Letter Small Capital N. IPA Extensions.

Latin Letter Small Capital N was approved as part of Unicode 1.1 in 1993.

Properties

Encoding

Capital Letters : Capital Letters and Abbreviations

Capital letters are not really an aspect of punctuation, but it is convenient to deal with them here. The rules for using them are mostly very simple.

(a) The first word of a sentence, or of a fragment, begins with a capital letter:

The bumbling wizard Rincewind is Pratchett's most popular character.

Will anyone now alive live to see a colony on the moon? Probably not.

Distressingly few pupils can locate Iraq or Japan on a map of the world.

(b) The names of the days of the week, and of the months of the year, are written with a capital letter:

Next Sunday France will hold a general election.

Mozart was born on 27 January, 1756.

Football practice takes place on Wednesdays and Fridays.

However, the names of seasons are not written with a capital:

Like cricket, baseball is played in the summer.

Do not write *"... in the Summer".

(c) The names of languages are always written with a capital letter. Be careful about this; it's a very common mistake.

Juliet speaks English, French, Italian and Portuguese.

I need to work on my Spanish irregular verbs.

Among the major languages of India are Hindi, Gujarati and Tamil.

These days, few students study Latin and Greek.

Note, however, that names of disciplines and school subjects are not capitalized unless they happen to be the names of languages:

I'm doing A-levels in history, geography and English.

Newton made important contributions to physics and mathematics.

She is studying French literature.

(d) Words that express a connection with a particular place must be capitalized when they have their literal meanings. So, for example, French must be capitalized when it means `having to do with France':

The result of the French election is still in doubt.

The American and Russian negotiators are close to agreement.

There are no mountains in the Dutch landscape.

She has a dry Mancunian sense of humour.

(The word Mancunian means `from Manchester'.)

However, it is not necessary to capitalize these words when they occur as parts of fixed phrases and don't express any direct connection with the relevant places:

Please buy some danish pastries.

In warm weather, we keep our french windows open.

I prefer russian dressing on my salad.

Why the difference? Well, a danish pastry is merely a particular sort of pastry; it doesn't have to come from Denmark. Likewise, french windows are merely a particular kind of window, and russian dressing is just a particular variety of salad dressing. Even in these cases, you can capitalize these words if you want to, as long as you are consistent about it. But notice how convenient it can be to make the difference:

In warm weather, we keep our french windows open.

After nightfall, French windows are always shuttered.

In the first example, french windows just refers to a kind of window; in the second, French windows refers specifically to windows in France.

(e) In the same vein, words that identify nationalities or ethnic groups must be capitalized:

The Basques and the Catalans spent decades struggling for autonomy.

The Serbs and the Croats have become bitter enemies.

Norway's most popular singer is a Sami from Lapland.

(An aside: some ethnic labels which were formerly widely used are now regarded by many people as offensive and have been replaced by other labels. Thus, careful writers use Black, not Negro; native American, not Indian or red Indian; native Australian, not Aborigine. You are advised to follow suit.)

(f) Formerly, the words black and white, when applied to human beings, were never capitalized. Nowadays, however, many people prefer to capitalize them because they regard these words as ethnic labels comparable to Chinese or Indian:

The Rodney King case infuriated many Black Americans.

You may capitalize these words or not, as you prefer, but be consistent.

(g) Proper names are always capitalized. A proper name is a name or a title that refers to an individual person, an individual place, an individual institution or an individual event. Here are some examples:

The study of language was revolutionized by Noam Chomsky.

The Golden Gate Bridge towers above San Francisco Bay.

There will be a debate between Professor Lacey and Doctor Davis.

The Queen will address the House of Commons today.

Many people mistakenly believe that Mexico is in South America.

My friend Julie is training for the Winter Olympics.

Next week President Clinton will be meeting Chancellor Kohl.

Observe the difference between the next two examples:

We have asked for a meeting with the President.

I would like to be the president of a big company.

In the first, the title the President is capitalized because it is a title referring to a specific person; in the second, there is no capital, because the word president does not refer to anyone in particular. (Compare We have asked for a meeting with President Wilson and *I would like to be President Wilson of a big company.) The same difference is made with some other words: we write the Government and Parliament when we are referring to a particular government or a particular parliament, but we write government and parliament when we are using the words generically. And note also the following example:

The patron saint of carpenters is Saint Joseph.

Here Saint Joseph is a name, but patron saint is not and gets no capital.

There is a slight problem with the names of hazily defined geographical regions. We usually write the Middle East and Southeast Asia, because these regions are now regarded as having a distinctive identity, but we write central Europe and southeast London, because these regions are not thought of as having the same kind of identity. Note, too, the difference between South Africa (the name of a particular country) and southern Africa (a vaguely defined region). All I can suggest here is that you read a good newspaper and keep your eyes open.

Observe that certain surnames of foreign origin contain little words that are often not capitalized, such as de, du, da, von and van. Thus we write Leonardo da Vinci, Ludwig van Beethoven, General von Moltke and Simone de Beauvoir. On the other hand, we write Daphne Du Maurier and Dick Van Dyke, because those are the forms preferred by the owners of the names. When in doubt, check the spelling in a good reference book.

A few people eccentrically prefer to write their names with no capital letters at all, such as the poet e. e. cummings and the singer k. d. lang. These strange usages should be respected.

(h) The names of distinctive historical periods are capitalized:

London was a prosperous city during the Middle Ages.

Britain was the first country to profit from the Industrial Revolution.

The Greeks were already in Greece during the Bronze Age.

(i) The names of festivals and holy days are capitalized:

We have long breaks at Christmas and Easter.

During Ramadan, one may not eat before sundown.

The feast of Purim is an occasion for merrymaking.

Our church observes the Sabbath very strictly.

The children greatly enjoy Hallowe'en.

(j) Many religious terms are capitalized, including the names of religions and of their followers, the names or titles of divine beings, the titles of certain important figures, the names of important events and the names of sacred books:

An atheist is a person who does not believe in God.

The principal religions of Japan are Shinto and Buddhism.

The Indian cricket team includes Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and Parsees.

The Lord is my shepherd.

The Prophet was born in Mecca.

The Last Supper took place on the night before the Crucifixion.

The Old Testament begins with Genesis.

Note, however, that the word god is not capitalized when it refers to a pagan deity:

Poseidon was the Greek god of the sea.

(k) In the title or name of a book, a play, a poem, a film, a magazine, a newspaper or a piece of music, a capital letter is used for the first word and for every significant word (that is, a little word like the, of, and or in is not capitalized unless it is the first word):

I was terrified by The Silence of the Lambs.

The Round Tower was written by Catherine Cookson.

Bach's most famous organ piece is the Toccata and Fugue in D Minor.

I don't usually like Cher, but I do enjoy The Shoop Shoop Song.

Important note: The policy just described is the one most widely used in the English-speaking world. There is, however, a second policy, preferred by many people. In this second policy, we capitalize only the first word of a title and any words which intrinsically require capitals for independent reasons. Using the second policy, my examples would look like this:

I was terrified by The silence of the lambs.

The round tower was written by Catherine Cookson.

Bach's most famous organ piece is the Toccata and fugue in D minor.

I don't usually like Cher, but I do enjoy The shoop shoop song.

You may use whichever policy you prefer, so long as you are consistent about it. You may find, however, that your tutor or your editor insists upon one or the other. The second policy is particularly common (though not universal) in academic circles, and is usual among librarians; elsewhere, the first policy is almost always preferred.

(l) The first word of a direct quotation, repeating someone else's exact words, is always capitalized if the quotation is a complete sentence:

Thomas Edison famously observed "Genius is one per cent inspiration and ninety-nine per cent perspiration. "

But there is no capital letter if the quotation is not a complete sentence:

The Minister described the latest unemployment figures as "disappointing".

(m) The brand names of manufacturers and their products are capitalized:

Maxine has bought a second-hand Ford Escort.

Almost everybody owns a Sony Walkman.

Note: There is a problem with brand names which have become so successful that they are used in ordinary speech as generic labels for classes of products. The manufacturers of Kleenex and Sellotape are exasperated to find people using kleenex and sellotape as ordinary words for facial tissues or sticky tape of any kind, and some such manufacturers may actually take legal action against this practice. If you are writing for publication, you need to be careful about this, and it is best to capitalize such words if you use them. However, when brand names are converted into verbs, no capital letter is used: we write She was hoovering the carpet and I need to xerox this report, even though the manufacturers of Hoover vacuum cleaners and Xerox photocopiers don 't much like this practice, either.

(n) Roman numerals are usually capitalized:

It is no easy task to multiply LIX by XXIV using Roman numerals.

King Alfonso XIII handed over power to General Primo de Rivera.

The only common exception is that small Roman numerals are used to number the pages of the front matter in books; look at almost any book.

(o) The pronoun I is always capitalized:

She thought I'd borrowed her keys, but I hadn't.

It is possible to write an entire word or phrase in capital letters in order to emphasize it:

There is ABSOLUTELY NO EVIDENCE to support this conjecture.

On the whole, though, it is preferable to express emphasis, not with capital letters, but with italics. It is not necessary to capitalize a word merely because there is only one thing it can possibly refer to:

The equator runs through the middle of Brazil.

Admiral Peary was the first person to fly over the north pole.

The universe is thought to be about 15 billion years old.

Here the words equator, north pole and universe need no capitals, because they aren't strictly proper names. Some people choose to capitalize them anyway; this is not wrong, but it's not recommended.

Capital letters are also used in writing certain abbreviations and related types of words, including the abbreviated names of organizations and companies, and in letter writing and in the headings of essays.

There is one other rather rare use of capital letters which is worth explaining if only to prevent you from doing it by mistake when you don't mean to. This to poke fun at something. Here is an example:

The French Revolution was a Good Thing at first, but Napoleon's rise to power was a Bad Thing.

Here the writer is making fun of the common tendency to see historical events in simple-minded terms as either good or bad. Another example:

Many people claim that rock music is Serious Art, deserving of Serious Critical Attention.

The writer is clearly being sarcastic: all those unusual capital letters demonstrate that he considers rock music to be worthless trash.

This stylistic device is only appropriate in writing which is intended to be humorous, or at least light-hearted; it is quite out of place in formal writing.

The use of unnecessary capital letters when you're trying to be serious can quickly make your prose look idiotic, rather like those content-free books that fill the shelves of the "New Age" section in bookshops:

Your Eidetic Soul is linked by its Crystal Cord to the Seventh Circle of the Astral Plane, from where the Immanent Essence is transmitted to your Eidetic Aura,...

You get the idea. Don't use a capital letter unless you're sure you know why it's there.

Summary of Capital Letters:

Capitalize

• the first word of a sentence or fragment
• the name of a day or a month
• the name of a language
• a word expressing a connection with a place
• the name of a nationality or an ethnic group
• a proper name
• the name of a historical period
• the name of a holiday
• a significant religious term
• the first word, and each significant word, of a title
• the first word of a direct quotation which is a sentence
• a brand name
• a Roman numeral
• the pronoun I

Maintained by the Department of Informatics, University of Sussex

Uppercase and Lowercase Letters / Sudo Null IT News

I've gathered here some not-so-obvious facts about uppercase and lowercase letters that a programmer may encounter at work. Many of you have translated strings into “all uppercase” (uppercase), “all lowercase” (lowercase), “first capital, and the rest lowercase” (titlecase). Even more popular is the case-insensitive comparison operation. On a global scale, such operations can be quite non-trivial. The post is structured as a "collection of misconceptions" with counterexamples.

1. If I convert the string to uppercase or lowercase, the number of Unicode characters does not change.

No. The text may contain lowercase ligatures, which do not correspond to one character in upper case. For example, when translating to uppercase: fi (U+FB00) -> FI (U+0046, U+0049)

2. Ligatures are a perversion, no one uses them. If they are not taken into account, then I'm right.

No. Some letters with diacritics do not have an exact match in other case, so you have to use a combined character. Let's say the Afrikaans language has the letter ʼn (U+0149). In upper case, it corresponds to a combination of two characters: (U+02BC, U+004E). If you come across a transliteration of Arabic text, you may encounter (U+1E96), which also does not have a single-character match in upper case, so you will have to replace it with (U+0048, U+0331). The Wakhi language has a letter (U+01F0) with a similar problem. You may argue that this is exotic, but there are 23,000 articles in Afrikaans on Wikipedia.

3. All right, but let's consider a combined character (involving modifying or combining code points) as one character. Then the length will still be preserved.

No. There is, for example, the letter "escet" ß (U+00DF) in German. When converted to uppercase, it turns into two SS characters (U+0053, U+0053).

4. Okay, okay, got it. We will assume that the number of Unicode characters can increase, but not more than twice.

No. There are specific Greek letters, for example, (U+0390) that turn into three Unicode characters (U+0399, U+0308, U+0301)

5.

No. Let's remember the same ligatures. If a word in lowercase begins with fl (U+FB02), then in uppercase the ligature becomes FL (U+0046, U+004C), but in titlecase it becomes Fl (U+0046, U+006C). The same with ß, but, theoretically, words cannot begin with it.

6. Those ligatures again! Well, we take the first character from the word, translate it into uppercase, if more than one character is obtained, then we leave the first one, and the rest back into lowercase. Then it will definitely work.

Won't work. There is, for example, the digraph dz (U+01F3), which can be used in text in Polish, Slovak, Macedonian or Hungarian. In uppercase it corresponds to the digraph DZ (U+01F1), and in titlecase it corresponds to the digraph Dz (U+01F2). There are other digraphs. The Greek language, on the other hand, will please you with jokes with hypogegrammen and progegrammen (fortunately, this is rarely found in modern texts). In general, the uppercase and titlecase variants for a character can be different, and there are separate entries for them in the Unicode standard.

7. Good, but at least the result of converting a character's case to uppercase or lowercase does not depend on its position in the word.

No. For example, the Greek capital sigma Σ (U+03A3) becomes a lowercase ς (U+03C2) at the end of a word and σ (U+03C3) in the middle.

8. Oh, okay, let's process the Greek sigma separately. But in any case, the same character in the same position in the text is converted in the same way.

No. For example, in most Latin languages, the lower case for I (U+0049) is i (U+0069), but not in Turkish and Azeri. There, the lower case for I is ı (U+0131) and the capital case for i is İ (U+0130). In Turkey, because of this, enchanting bugs are sometimes observed in a variety of software. And if you come across a text in Lithuanian with accents, then, for example, a capital Ì (U + 00CC), which will turn not into ì (U + 00EC), but into (U + 0069, U + 0307, ​​U + 0300) . In general, the result of the conversion also depends on the language. Most of the complex cases are described here.

9. What a horror! Well, let's now correctly convert to uppercase and lowercase. Comparing two words case-insensitively is not a problem: we translate both into lowercase and compare.

There are also many pitfalls that follow from the above. For example, it will not work with German straße and STRASSE (the former will not change, the latter will turn into strasse). There will also be problems with many of the other letters described above.

10. M-yes… Maybe then everything is in the uppercase?

And it won't always work (although much more often). But, say, if you come across the notation STRAE (yes, there is a big escet in German and Unicode too), it will not match straße. For comparisons, letters are converted according to a special Unicode table - CaseFolding, according to which both ß and SS will turn into ss.

11. A-ah-ah, this is some kind of kapets!

Here I agree.

If some symbols are not displayed for someone, write me a private message, I will replace it with a picture.

CAPITAL LETTERS - what are they (large or small)? Example

Capital letters are uppercase letters that are larger than lowercase letters.

What are capital letters?

In Russian writing, letters differ in their graphic design: some are large, others are small or lowercase. Large letters are often referred to as capital letters. As can be understood from this "speaking" name, they begin headings, that is, they indicate the beginning of

• sentences
• of the period
• paragraphs
• stanzas
• of someone else's speech, etc.

  - By everyone is born for some work, - E. Hemingway objected and added:
  - By everyone who walks the earth has his duties in life.

  In an old style heals me.
  E There is charm in ancient speech.
  About is not like your words
  and are more modern and sharper.

  Bella Akhmadulina

  Capital letters are a common name. In Russian, a special linguistic term is used - capital letters. Once upon a time, at the dawn of handwriting, they were really carefully written at the beginning of a line, and decorated in every possible way to distinguish them from other ordinary letters. Emphasizing the initial letter of the first word is the oldest writing technique that was used before the invention of printing. When typography appeared, the tradition of using capital letters at the beginning of a sentence and to highlight proper names survived.

  Let's consider in detail the cases in which uppercase or lowercase letters are used in modern Russian.

  The use of capital letters

  Capital letters are used not only in headings, at the beginning of sentences, but also to highlight certain words that are located anywhere in the written language. These special words include

  • proper names;
  • items.

  In Russian orthography, proper names are always written with a capital letter:

  1. names, patronymics, surnames, pseudonyms, nicknames of people, names of gods, mythical creatures, fairy-tale and literary heroes

  • Tanya, Vasilek, Andryushka;
  • Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin;
  • Gaius Julius Caesar;
  • Vladimir Red Sun;
  • O'Henry (William Sidney Porter)
  • Curly, Chernysh, Beetle, Top;
  • Zeus, Hera, Apollo;
  • Vasilisa the Beautiful, Cinderella, The Nutcracker.

  2. animal names

  • Tortilla turtle;
  • cat Marquis;
  • dog Oliver;

  3. geographical names, except for generic words (krai, region, district, city, settlement, village, river, lake, mountain, sea, bay, etc.)

  • Krasnodar Territory;
  • Saratov region;
  • City of Mosty;
  • Veliky Ustyug;
  • Sokol settlement;
  • Ponizovye village;
  • Volga river;
  • Lake Seliger;
  • Red Sea;
  • Everest.

  4. astronomical names

  • Cygnus constellation;
  • Solar Galaxy;
  • Alpha Centauri.

  The words "Earth", "Moon" and "Sun" as the names of celestial bodies are written with a capital letter and with a lowercase letter if they are used as common nouns. Compare:

  Recently, astronomers have difficulty distinguishing spots on the Sun.

  Rosehip stood with large flowers turned towards the sun, covered with many buds (KG Paustovsky).

  Note that in proper names all words , their components, are capitalized , except for nouns denoting generic concepts and service words, for example:

  • city of Rostov-on-Don;
  • Ludwig van Beethoven;
  • Vicomte de Bragelonne;
  • Vasco da Gamma.

  In this way, proper names differ from the names of organizations, institutions, industrial associations, architectural monuments, etc.

  Capitalize only the first word in titles, for example:

  • Socio-Political Research Foundation;
  • Research Institute of Road Engineering;
  • Main Department of Internal Affairs;
  • House of scientists;
  • Bronze Horseman.

    ---

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