Home » Misc » Definition of sharing for kids

Definition of sharing for kids


Share Definition & Meaning | Britannica Dictionary

9 ENTRIES FOUND:

  • share (verb)
  • share (noun)
  • share–out (noun)
  • share option (noun)
  • lion's share (noun)
  • market share (noun)
  • time–share (noun)
  • pie (noun)
  • wealth (noun)

1 share /ˈʃeɚ/ verb

shares; shared; sharing

1 share

/ˈʃeɚ/

verb

shares; shared; sharing

Britannica Dictionary definition of SHARE

1 

[+ object]

:

to have or use (something) with others

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

— often + with

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

2 

[+ object]

of two or more people

:

to divide (something) into parts and each take or use a part

  • They shared the last cookie.

  • We shared the money equally.

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

3 

:

to let someone else have or use a part of (something that belongs to you)

[+ object]

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

— often + with

  • He doesn't share his toys with other kids.

  • Share the cookies with your sister.

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

[no object]

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

4 

:

to have (something that someone or something else also has)

:

to have (something) in common

[+ object]

  • We share an interest in baseball. [=we are both interested in baseball]

  • The two countries share a border.

  • I know you're worried about the schedule, but I don't share your concerns. [=I don't have the same concerns that you have; I am not worried about the schedule]

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

— often + with

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

[no object]

— + in

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

5 

:

to tell someone about (your feelings, opinions, thoughts, etc. )

[+ object]

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

— often + with

  • Would you like to share your feelings with the group?

  • Thanks for sharing that (with me).

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

[no object]

  • Thanks for sharing.

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

6 

:

to have equal responsibility for or involvement in (something)

[+ object]

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

[no object]

— + in

  • We all share in the responsibility for this tragedy.

  • The whole family shares in the household chores.

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

share out

[phrasal verb]

share out (something) or share (something) out chiefly British

:

to divide (something) into parts and give the parts to different people

  • In her will, she shared out her property to her nephews and nieces.

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

— see also share-out

— sharer

noun, plural sharers [count]

2 share /ˈʃeɚ/ noun

plural shares

2 share

/ˈʃeɚ/

noun

plural shares

Britannica Dictionary definition of SHARE

1 

[singular]

:

a part of something that has been divided into parts and given to different people

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

— often + of

  • I sold my share [=portion] of the business.

  • I got my share of the profits.

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

— see also lion's share, time-share

2 

[count]

:

any of the equal parts into which the ownership of a property or business is divided

  • 100 shares of stock

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

— see also market share

3 

[singular]

:

the amount of something that someone owes or deserves or is responsible for

— often + of

  • Everybody should have to pay their share [=portion] of the dinner bill.

  • Everyone must accept their share of the blame.

  • I've done my (fair) share of the work.

[+] more examples [-] hide examples [+] Example sentences [-] Hide examples

a share of the pie

— see pie

Share Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster

1 of 3

ˈsher 

transitive verb

1

a

: to partake of, use, experience, occupy, or enjoy with others

b

: to have in common

they share a passion for opera

c(1)

: to distribute on the Internet

… anyone you share a link with can share that link with someone else if they choose. Jeremy Scott

(2)

: to post (something) on a social media platform

Fans were also quick to screenshot and share the photo. Yasmin Quaid

The collective mind-set feels akin to that old adage about a tree falling in the forest: If you don't share it on Instagram, did it even happen? Emily Farra

It pulls in words and pictures from news and blog feeds as well as from links that your pals share on Facebook and Twitter. Harry McCracken

2

: to grant or give a share in

—often used with with

shared the last of her water with us

3

: to tell (thoughts, feelings, experiences, etc. ) to others

—often used with with

4

: to divide and distribute in shares: apportion

—usually used with out

shared out the land among his heirs

intransitive verb

1

: to have a share

—used with in

we all shared in the fruits of our labor

2

: to apportion and take shares of something

3

: to talk about one's thoughts, feelings, or experiences with others

sharer noun

share

2 of 3

1

a

: a portion belonging to, due to, or contributed by an individual or group

b

: one's full or fair portion

has had his share of bad luck

2

a

: the part allotted or belonging to one of a number owning together property or interest

b

: any of the equal portions into which property or invested capital is divided

specifically : any of the equal interests or rights into which the entire stock of a corporation is divided and ownership of which is regularly evidenced by one or more certificates

c

shares plural, chiefly British : stock sense 2a

share

3 of 3

: plowshare

Synonyms

Verb

  • partake
  • participate

Noun (1)

  • allotment
  • allowance
  • cut
  • end
  • part
  • piece
  • portion
  • proportion
  • quota
  • slice
  • take

See all Synonyms & Antonyms in Thesaurus 

Example Sentences

Verb They shared the last cookie. We shared the money equally. The children need to learn to share their toys.

Word History

Etymology

Noun (1)

Middle English, from Old English scearu cutting, tonsure; akin to Old English scieran to cut

Noun (2)

Middle English schare, from Old English scear; akin to Old High German scaro plowshare, Old English scieran to cut — more at shear

First Known Use

Verb

1590, in the meaning defined at transitive sense 4

Noun (1)

14th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1a

Noun (2)

before the 12th century, in the meaning defined above

Time Traveler

The first known use of share was before the 12th century

See more words from the same century

Dictionary Entries Near

share

sharded

share

shareable

See More Nearby Entries 

Cite this Entry

Style

MLAChicagoAPAMerriam-Webster

“Share. ” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/share. Accessed 8 Dec. 2022.

Copy Citation

Kids Definition

share

1 of 2 noun

ˈshe(ə)r 

ˈsha(ə)r

1

: a portion belonging to, due to, or contributed by an individual

2

: the part given or belonging to one of a number owning something together

sold my share of the business

3

: any of the equal portions or interests into which the property of a corporation is divided

100 shares of stock

share

2 of 2 verb

1

: to divide and distribute in portions

shared the lunch

2

: to use, experience, or enjoy with others

3

: to give or be given a share : take a part

share in planning the program

sharer noun

Legal Definition

share

noun

1

: a portion belonging to, due to, or due from an individual

a joint tortfeasor is liable for her share of the damages

specifically : the part allotted or belonging to one of a number owning together any property or interest

the share of a joint tenant

his share passed to his widow

2

a

: any of the equal interests into which ownership of something (as a fund) is divided

specifically : any of the equal interests or rights into which the entire capital stock of a corporation is divided

b

: a certificate representing such a share

More from Merriam-Webster on

share

Nglish: Translation of share for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of share for Arabic Speakers

Britannica. com: Encyclopedia article about share

Subscribe to America's largest dictionary and get thousands more definitions and advanced search—ad free!

Merriam-Webster unabridged

Metabolic disorders: causes and prevention

Consultation with a specialist:

What is metabolism?

Metabolism can be divided into 2 important processes that occur in the body in parallel:

  1. Anabolism (assimilation, plastic exchange).
  2. Catabolism (dissimilation).

Anabolism is the synthesis of substances within the body, for which energy is expended. Assimilation includes the biosynthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, fats. The most active process of plastic exchange is carried out in a growing organism.

Catabolism is the process of decomposition of substances into simpler elements, due to which the body stores energy that is used to maintain life. The simplest example is obtaining nutrients from food. It happens like this:

  1. Entry of substances into the body with food.
  2. Absorption from the digestive tract.
  3. Assimilation.
  4. Excretion of decay products unsuitable for digestion.

For the normal functioning of the body, the balance of these two processes is important. When it is violated, various pathologies arise.

The following metabolic disorders may occur:

  • Protein.
  • Carbohydrate.
  • Water.
  • Lipid (fat).
  • Mineral.

Call now

+7 (495) 215-56-90

Sign up

Causes of metabolic disorders

The main causes of metabolic disorders include:

  • Stress.
  • Genetic predisposition (congenital deficiency of certain enzymes).
  • Unbalanced diet.
  • Intoxications.
  • Frequent diets.
  • Bad habits: smoking, drinking alcohol.
  • Malfunctions of the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pituitary gland.
  • Taking hormonal contraceptives and other drugs.
  • Worm infestations and other parasitic infections.
  • Viral diseases - influenza, measles, chickenpox.
  • Sedentary lifestyle.

Congenital metabolic diseases

Congenital pathologies can be divided into 3 large groups. These include violations:

  1. Metabolism of small molecules (failures in the metabolism of carbohydrates, neurotransmitters, neuromodulators) - diseases that cause disruptions in intermediate metabolism.
  2. Energy exchange - insufficient energy production and consumption.
  3. Metabolism of complex molecules - pathologies that prevent the production of complex molecules.

Metabolic disorders: symptoms

Common signs of a metabolic failure are:

  • Unhealthy skin color.
  • Labored breathing.
  • Abrupt weight gain or loss without objective reasons.
  • Joint and muscle pain.
  • Deterioration of the quality of hair, nails, skin.
  • Disorders of thermoregulation (increased sensitivity to cold and heat).
  • Sleep problems.
  • Changes in blood pressure.
  • Edema.
  • Prolonged increase or decrease in body temperature.
  • Frequent urination.
  • Stool problems: diarrhea or constipation.
  • Memory deterioration.
  • Mood swings.
  • Skin eruptions.
  • Tooth decay.

The symptoms of metabolic disorders in women include infertility, menstrual irregularities (the most common manifestation is scant discharge).

Also, failures of different types of exchanges may have “their own” signs, identified by the results of laboratory studies. In violation of carbohydrate metabolism, there may be:

  • Changes in the concentration of glucose in the blood (therefore, a frequent consequence of the failure of carbohydrate metabolism is diabetes mellitus - impaired glucose uptake).
  • The presence of glucose in the urine.

Symptoms of lipid metabolism (its violation is usually associated with a deterioration in the digestion and absorption of fats) are:

  • Steatorrhea (presence of lipids in the stool).
  • Development of cholesterioses (deposition of cholesterol in cell membranes or on vessel walls).

Signs of protein metabolism disorders are:

  • Blood levels of uric acid.
  • Presence of amino acids in urine.
  • Increase in the content of bilirubin in the blood.

Consequences of metabolic disorders

Metabolic disorders can lead to the development of the following diseases:

  • Diabetes mellitus - the inability of the body to absorb glucose due to a failure in the synthesis of the hormone insulin.
  • Ischemic heart disease - acute or chronic damage to the heart muscle (myocardium) due to a violation of its blood supply.
  • Atherosclerosis is a chronic disease in which there is a narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels due to deposits on their walls (atherosclerotic plaques).
  • Obesity - increase in body weight due to pathological fat deposits.
  • Gout is an inflammatory disease of the joints.

Also, metabolic disorders can cause:

  • Deterioration of bones and muscles.
  • Growth and developmental retardation in children.
  • Malfunctions of the cardiovascular system.

In children, the consequences of metabolic disorders can be:

  • Rickets is a bone formation disorder.
  • Anemia (anemia) - lack of red blood cells (red blood cells that transport oxygen).

Diagnosis of metabolic disorders

To diagnose a metabolic failure, you need to contact a therapist. He will conduct an examination, collect an anamnesis and refer the patient to studies, including:

  • Blood and urine tests (general, biochemical, glucose).
  • Glucose tolerance test.
  • Blood cholesterol test.
  • Lipid profile.
  • Computed tomogram.
  • ECG.

Also, depending on the symptoms, instrumental studies (primarily ultrasound) of the kidneys, liver, pancreas, and organs of the endocrine system can be performed.

Treatment

The tactics of treating metabolic disorders depends on the complexity and causes of the pathology. Minor failures can be eliminated by:

  • Power corrections.
  • Lifestyle changes - daily routine.
  • Prescription of vitamin and mineral complexes.
  • Physical education.

The type of diet depends on the nature of the violations. In most cases, fractional meals are recommended: in small portions, after 2-3 hours. Also exclude fried, pickled, salty, spicy, fatty foods. Restriction of carbohydrates and fats of animal origin may be required.

If the violations are caused by enzyme deficiency or diseases, appropriate treatment is carried out. So, with diabetes, insulin therapy can be prescribed (if required), with thyroid diseases - hormonal drugs. In some cases, surgical intervention is required (in the presence of goiter, pituitary adenoma).

Also, in case of violations of metabolic processes, spa treatment can be prescribed.

If you have symptoms of a metabolic failure, you should consult a doctor. First, in order to fix a problem, you need to know its cause. This is not possible without diagnostic testing. This means that the patient will act on intuition, which not only will not give the desired result, but can also aggravate the violations. Secondly, self-medication often means taking vitamin-mineral complexes and dietary supplements. Again, not knowing exactly which substances are missing in the body, you can increase the imbalance. And an excess of vitamins and minerals is no less dangerous than their lack.

Treatment of metabolic disorders involves an integrated approach. The patient may need the help of several narrow specialists at once, for example, an endocrinologist, a nutritionist, a psychotherapist. A psychotherapist will help you get rid of stress and sleep problems.

Prophylaxis

Prevention of metabolic failures includes:

  • A balanced diet with a restriction of fatty, starchy, sweet foods and the inclusion of fruits, vegetables, lean meat, dairy products in the diet.
  • Avoiding overeating and starvation.
  • Compliance with the vitamin and mineral balance in the body (to control it, preventive blood tests should be taken).
  • Development of stress resistance and avoidance of emotional upheavals.
  • Refusal of bad habits - alcohol reduces the production of testosterone, which is necessary for maintaining the quality of muscle mass, and when smoking, toxins enter the body, which is why energy is spent on detoxification.

When developing a diet, it is recommended to consult a nutritionist. He will take into account all the needs of the patient's body and develop an individual diet that allows you to maintain metabolic processes in optimal condition.

Also, the prevention of metabolic disorders is a timely visit to the doctor. You should make an appointment as soon as you notice at least a few symptoms of a metabolic failure.

Share:

Call now

+7 (495) 215-56-90

Make an appointment

Human energy metabolism: how can we personalize obesity therapy | Vasyukova

There is a constant exchange of matter and energy between a person and the environment. The body regularly receives micro- and macronutrients, water, oxygen, and the end products of metabolism are eliminated into the external environment. In cells, the processes of breakdown of organic substances and the synthesis of the necessary nutrients are continuously taking place to build and renew the structural elements of cells, tissues and organs, which are accompanied by the processes of release, absorption and storage of energy in the form of macroergic compounds. The relationship of two multidirectional processes: anabolic (plastic metabolism) and catabolic is the basis of the dynamic balance of metabolism, which is ensured by complex regulation at different levels. Age, gender, race, health status, nutritional status, daily physical activity, environmental exposure have a significant impact on the state of metabolism.

The history of the study of human energy metabolism began in the 1780s, when Antoine Lavoisier and Simon Pierre de Laplace measured oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide excretion in humans and found that both indicators increase after eating and during exercise, although body temperature at this does not change [1]. They designed a small calorimeter for guinea pigs and showed a direct relationship between the heat generated by the animal and the respiratory system. These early experiments were perfected by Wilbur Atwater and his colleagues who created a calorimeter to examine people and showed that the human body obeys the greatest law of thermodynamics - the law of conservation of energy: the amount of heat produced by an individual is equal to the amount of heat released by the oxidation of the food he takes. [2].

Thus, energy balance (the so-called zero energy balance) is achieved when the consumption of energy suitable for metabolism corresponds to the amount of energy expended. Accordingly, a "non-zero" energy balance implies an equidirectional change in metabolism and weight, which subsequently changes energy expenditure. So, in the case of a positive energy balance, the basal metabolic rate increases corresponding to weight gain due to the growth of muscle mass to maintain the consumed fat depots, and vice versa, a negative energy balance causes a decrease in body weight, while the basal metabolic rate also decreases. Assuming that energy intake remains unchanged after the initial intervention, one would expect energy expenditure to match energy intake and body weight to stabilize at the new target level [3].

At the same time, the last decades of modern history have shaken previously known axioms. Obesity, which has taken over the entire planet, is the result of a chronic energy imbalance, in which energy intake constantly exceeds expenditure, which leads to the accumulation of excess energy in the form of white adipose tissue. And despite the seemingly simple solution of reducing calorie intake (avoiding certain foods) and increasing energy expenditure (increasing physical activity), the results of modern research demonstrate the extremely low effectiveness of these interventions, indicating that obesity is a much more complex problem. than it seems at first glance.

In addition, it should be recognized that modern basic scientific research using animal models and cell cultures, which made it possible to understand the molecular pathogenetic mechanisms underlying the development of metabolic disorders and chronic disease, did not bring us closer to understanding practical strategies for managing overweight and did not give effective clinical measures to combat the obesity epidemic.

We have yet to explore the complex interactions between genetics, physiology, and cognitive behavior that regulate energy homeostasis.

In the current situation, when genetics, biochemistry are not reliable predictors of the trajectory of changes in body weight, as well as for evaluating the effectiveness of interventions, one of the rapidly developing areas of personification of obesity therapy has become the study of energy metabolism as a kind of summary indicator of the interaction of various factors in the body of an individual person.

Daily human energy metabolism (SEA) consists of three main components: basal metabolism, nutritional thermogenesis and energy expenditure for physical activity.

Basal metabolic rate (RO, resting metabolic rate, RMR) accounts for 55–70% of daily energy expenditure and characterizes the energy expenditure necessary to maintain the functioning of vital body functions: respiration, excretion, blood circulation and etc. [4]. RO includes energy expenditure during sleep and for maintaining wakefulness without physical activity (the latter accounts for about 5% of OT with slight differences depending on race, sex and weight). The greatest contribution to the formation of GR (up to 70%) is made by lean mass.

Nutritional thermogenesis (diet-induced thermogenesis) is no more than 5–7% of daily energy expenditure and characterizes the additional energy expenditure of the body for the absorption and utilization of consumed food. The magnitude of nutritional thermogenesis depends on the qualitative composition of the food: it is maximum when eating foods rich in protein, and minimal when eating fatty foods.

Energy costs associated with physical activity , make up 25-30% of the daily energy metabolism and characterize the energy costs necessary to provide structured (sports / physical education) and everyday physical activity.

Over the past 20 years, the possibilities of an objective assessment of human energy costs have been actively expanding, new methods and devices have appeared. The most studied methods are direct calorimetry (assessment of heat production) and indirect, based on determining the volume of oxygen consumed and carbon dioxide released, which, in turn, also allows us to estimate the proportional ratio of the participation of carbohydrates and lipids in oxidation.

The gold standard for measuring total energy consumption is the double labeled water method.0290 double labeled water ", DLW ), the use of which in humans dates back to the 1980s. [5–8]. During it, a person drinks water containing heavy, labeled, non-radioactive forms of hydrogen (deuterium) and oxygen, which are gradually excreted from the body during the day (by the kidneys, with sweat, exhaled air). The method is considered safe and is used in all age categories, including newborns. The sampling of biological fluids (blood, saliva or urine) is carried out before and after the introduction of the isotope, then at the end of the study after 1-3 weeks. Sample-derived water enriched in these two gases is measured by isotopic ratio spectrometry. Since deuterium is excreted from the body only with water, and the oxygen isotope with water and exhaled carbon dioxide, the rate of elimination of the hydrogen isotope is a measure of the body's fluid loss. The difference between the extraction kinetics of the two isotopes makes it possible to estimate the energy consumption. The method is certainly time-consuming and difficult to use in routine clinical practice.

The results of the largest population-based study to date using the double labeled water method were published in Science in August 2021 [9]. These unique data obtained by G. Ponzer et al. in an analysis of energy expenditure in more than 6,400 healthy men and women from 29 countries aged 8 days to 95 years, demonstrated changes in metabolic rate during growth, development and aging. Basal metabolic rate was adjusted for fat-free mass to account for differences in body composition, gender, and changes in metabolic status throughout life. As expected, total energy expenditure increased in parallel with the increase in lean body mass. The authors identified 4 main periods of significant changes in human energy metabolism. The first period - infantile - from birth to 1 year. The metabolic rate (SER and MR) in newborns corresponds to the level of an adult, by the age of 1 year it rapidly increases and becomes almost twice as high as in adults, reaching a peak by 7 months. Further, by the age of 20, there is a slow decrease in the level of metabolism (moreover, in children aged 10 to 15 years, there was no pubertal increase in the level of metabolism), and at the age of 20 to 60 years, it reaches a plateau level and remains stable even during pregnancy and after childbirth . With multivariate regression at the age from 1 year to 20 years, the exchange rates in males were higher, while in the older groups, gender did not have a noticeable effect on the rate of SEA decline with age. And finally, in the elderly, there is a gradual decrease in the level of energy metabolism, despite the absence of changes in the percentage of adipose tissue. In addition, this period is associated with an increase in the frequency of chronic diseases (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Changes in metabolic rate throughout life [9].

In recent years, evidence has emerged of a relationship between mitochondrial changes, nutrient availability, and energy expenditure, suggesting some form of cellular bioenergetic adaptation. If a cell experiences a state of energy hunger, its mitochondria increase the ratio of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) produced per unit of nutrient intake, while cells with excess nutrients increase energy waste in the form of heat due to the dissimilation of protons from mitochondria [10]. In other words, we adapt to changes in energy balance by changing the efficiency of ATP synthesis. However, long-term disorders (for example, chronic positive energy balance in obesity) can lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, which is characteristic of metabolic diseases [11].

Studying the molecular aspects of the aging process, P. Balasubramanyan et al. in an animal study, they noted the positive effect of caloric restriction on conditions associated with human aging, primarily a reduction in the risk of a number of non-communicable diseases - cardiovascular, tumor diseases, diabetes mellitus, dementia, osteoporosis, sarcopenia [12].

Analysis of metabolic status features in a certain age interval is important for personalizing recommendations on nutrition and physical activity, pharmacological correction, and in the long term, taking into account the data of Herman Ponzer's study that metabolic aging may not occur earlier than 60 years, - search for predictors to increase the period of "metabolic youth".

At present, it also remains unclear how energy expenditure is distributed in a person, how they are affected by age, environment, heredity, lifestyle. There are two hypotheses. The “accumulative” model assumes that a person has some basic level of basal metabolic rate, and physical activity increases it. The “restrictive” model, on the contrary, states that the overall level of costs is fixed, and in conditions of physical activity, only the ratio of energy expenditure that the body spends on certain types of its life activity changes.

The impact of physical activity and infectious diseases on a child's metabolism was studied by a group of scientists led by Herman Ponzer in 2019 [13]. The authors suggested that it is during active growth that the main characteristics of metabolism are laid. They examined 44 children (5–12 years old) from the indigenous Khivaro Indian people, numbering no more than 300 people, whose lifestyle is associated with daily hunting, fishing, gardening, and virtually no access to electricity, running water and medicine. The comparison group consisted of urban children from the USA and Great Britain. As a result, Khivaro children spent almost twice as much time in an active state as urban children. Despite this, the former had almost half the cost of daily physical activity. However, the RO level measured by indirect respiratory calorimetry turned out to be almost 20% higher, which the authors associated with a higher concentration of immunoglobulin G and more stable immune protection in conditions of high infectious risk. At the same time, there were no significant differences in the amount of lean mass between children. The total daily costs measured by the double labeled water method differed insignificantly (p=0.258). Thus, scientists have confirmed the second, "restrictive" model of energy consumption. These data confirm that dietary change (energy intake) rather than physical activity (energy expenditure) is the main determinant of the energy imbalance underlying the increase in obese patients. On the other hand, in developing countries, increased physical and immune activity can lead to a decrease in the energy needed for growth, even in a positive energy balance.

Of greatest interest is the study of the characteristics of energy metabolism in various forms of obesity, which is necessary to create an evidence-based, personalized approach to diet therapy and increase the effectiveness of measures aimed at weight loss.

Indirect respiratory calorimetry is recommended by the American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and the American Academy of Pediatrics as the method of choice for assessing basal metabolic rate when planning dietary therapy in obese children and adolescents [14][15]. In the work of S. Massarini et al. it has been shown that the use of indirect calorimetry in obesity treatment programs leads to greater weight loss compared to traditional diet therapy planning with the use of calculation formulas for assessing VR [16].

There are specific features of energy metabolism in various forms of obesity. Speaking about the most common, constitutionally exogenous form of childhood obesity, it should be noted that normal indicators of OO intensity are determined in 63.4% of children, a decrease in 25.8%, and an increase in 10.8% [17]. A decrease in the rate of RO is considered by some authors as an unfavorable factor contributing to the progression of obesity [18][19]. According to the most common theory, an insufficient increase in the intensity of energy metabolism at rest and during physical exertion against the background of weight gain leads to the formation of a positive energy balance even in the absence of dietary disturbances, which contributes to the progression of obesity. Such disorders may be due to hypothalamic and hormonal dysregulation, as well as congenital or acquired disorders of mitochondrial oxidation [20].

An analysis of the literature on the role of changes in energy metabolism in the progression of obesity in children shows conflicting results. In the work of J. Rodriguez et al. demonstrated a decrease in OO corrected for lean mass in obese children compared with non-overweight peers [21]. According to M. Gohenadel et al., a decrease in basal metabolic rate in children at the age of 10 years is associated with the progression of obesity in the future [22]. However, in prospective studies with a follow-up period of 2 to 7 years, the effect of RO rate on chronic obesity in children has not been proven [23, 24]. Other researchers do not find a relationship between RO intensity and subsequent weight gain in adults and children both with and without obesity [25–27], which indicates the need for further prospective studies to clarify the effect of RO intensity on the development and course of obesity in the future.

It was assumed that an increase in the intensity of RO should be a favorable factor in the course of obesity due to the formation of a negative energy balance. However, D.D. Cameron et al. demonstrated that an increase in VR in obese adolescents is associated with an increase in calorie intake and weight gain [28]. Thus, an increase in the intensity of RO should not be considered as a favorable prognostic factor for the course of obesity in children and adolescents.

A special form is morbid severe obesity, characterized by extremely low effectiveness of lifestyle modification and diet therapy. A study of the characteristics of energy metabolism in children showed that with morbid obesity there is a higher intensity of OO compared with the group of "non-morbid" obesity, regardless of gender and the amount of lean mass in the body [29]. It should be noted that with severe obesity, the calculation formulas significantly overestimate the level of RO, which can lead to excessive food intake and a decrease in the effectiveness of weight loss, so the use of indirect calorimetry in this case is more preferable [17].

A more rare form is hypothalamic obesity (HO) associated with the presence and treatment of tumors of the hypothalamus and brainstem, radiation therapy for brain tumors and hemoblastoses, trauma to the skull or stroke. The main reason for the development of HO is damage to the structures of the hypothalamus involved in the regulation of eating behavior. An important role in the development of HO is assigned to dysfunctions of the autonomic nervous system, which is expressed in a decrease in the tone of the sympathetic nervous system, which is directly involved in the regulation of energy metabolism in the body [30]. Numerous studies demonstrate that one of the mechanisms that explain excessive weight gain in children with HO is a decrease in RO [31-35]. According to I. Bomer, et al. in the group of children after surgical treatment of craniopharyngioma, a significant decrease in OS was revealed (1297 vs 1721 kcal; p<0.01) compared with the control group (43 children with constitutional exogenous obesity), comparable with the study group in terms of gender, age and degree of obesity [31]. In the work of M. Guftar Sheikh et al. a decrease in basal metabolic rate is also determined in a group of 18 children with HO [32]. The authors noted a decrease in motor activity in the HO group in the absence of polyphagia and suggested that a decrease in OO and motor activity are more significant factors in weight gain in HO than the amount of food consumed. The average decrease in RO in HO is 13–17%, but in some patients it can reach 33.4% [32][33].

Syndromic forms of obesity in children are found in chromosomal disorders, genomic imprinting diseases, and other genetic syndromes. The most common chromosomal pathology associated with obesity is Prader-Willi syndrome. The role of energy metabolism disorders in the pathogenesis of obesity in Prader-Willi syndrome is actively discussed in the literature [36]. Most studies reveal a significant decrease in OS - up to 37% in patients with Prader-Willi syndrome compared with a group of simple (constitutional-exogenous) obesity, which is currently associated with a lower amount of lean mass in these patients [36-39]. Also present somatotropic insufficiency and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, characteristic of this syndrome, also contribute to a decrease in the amount of lean mass and can potentiate existing energy metabolism disorders.

Thus, different forms of obesity are characterized by specific features of energy metabolism, which is an important component of the personification of obesity therapy.

CONCLUSION

Human energy metabolism is key to understanding both daily nutritional requirements and energy expenditure in various activities. Body composition, weight, height, and physical activity change throughout life, making it difficult to analyze the factors that determine energy expenditure.

Obesity is a disease resulting from chronic energy imbalance, heterogeneous in its structure. Different forms of obesity are distinguished by a certain contribution of genetic, hormonal, metabolic, external environmental factors. And along with this, different forms of obesity are characterized by the peculiarities of energy metabolism.

Effective treatment of obesity requires accurate measurements of energy intake and expenditure, as well as the study of related behaviors, to understand how energy homeostasis is regulated, and to evaluate interventions.

There are currently several methods developed to measure various aspects of energy metabolism, each with its own pros and cons. Modern research has shown that the use of indirect calorimetry in obesity treatment programs leads to greater weight loss compared to traditional diet planning using calculation formulas for evaluation.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

Funding sources. The publication was prepared as part of the state task "New approaches to the personalized treatment of obesity in children based on studies of energy metabolism, the functional reserve of beta cells, the secretion of adipokines, myokines and specific chaperones", registration number AAAA-A20-1200117

-9.

Conflict of interest. The authors declare no apparent or potential conflicts of interest related to the content of this article.

Participation of authors. Vasyukova O.V., Kasyanova Yu.V., Okorokov P.L. – search and analysis of literature data, writing an article; Bezlepkina O.B. - editing the text, making valuable comments. All authors approved the final version of the article before publication, agreed to be responsible for all aspects of the work, which implies the proper study and resolution of issues related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work.

1. Dorfman Ya.G. Lavoisier. M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR; 1962. 325 p.

2. Atwater WO, Rosa EB. Description of a new respiration calorimeter and experiments on the conservation of energy in the human body. Experiment station bulletin United States. Washington: Govt. print.; 1899. Off. No. 63.

3. Hervey GR, Tobin G. The part played by variation of energy expenditure in the regulation of energy balance. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 1982;41(2):137-153. doi: https://doi. org/10.1079/pns19820024

4. Gallagher D, Allen A, Wang Z, et al. Smaller organ tissue mass in the elderly fails to explain lower resting metabolic rate. Ann. N. Y. Acad. sci. 2000;904:449–455. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb06499.x.

5. Schoeller DA. Measurement of energy expenditure in free-living humans by using doubly labeled water. J Nutr. 1988;118(11):1278-89. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/118.11.1278. PMID: 3142975.

6. Speakman JR. The history and theory of the double labeled water technique. Am J Clinic Nutr. 1998;68(4):932S-938S doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/68.4.932S. PMID: 9771875.

7. Westerterp KR. Doubly labeled water assessment of energy expenditure: principle, practice, and promise. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2017 Jul;117(7):1277-1285. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-017-3641-x.

8. Lam YY, Ravussin E. Analysis of energy metabolism in humans: A review of methodologies. Mol Metab. 2016;5(11):1057-1071. doi:10.1016/j. molmet.2016.09.005

9. Pontzer H, Yamada Y, Sagayama H, et al; IAEA DLW Database Consortium. Daily energy expenditure through the human life course. Science. 2021;373(6556):808-812. doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abe5017.

10. Liesa M, Shirihai OS. Mitochondrial dynamics in the regulation of nutrient utilization and energy expenditure. Cell Metab. 2013;17(4):491-506. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2013.03.002

11. Jheng HF, Huang SH, Kuo HM, et al. Molecular insight and pharmacological approaches targeting mitochondrial dynamics in skeletal muscle during obesity. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2015;1350:82-94. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12863.

12. Balasubramanian P, Howell PR, Anderson RM. Aging and Caloric Restriction Research: A Biological Perspective With Translational Potential. EBioMedicine. 2017;21:37-44. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2017.06.015.

13. Urlacher SS, Snodgrass JJ, Dugas LR, et al. Constraint and trade-offs regulate energy expenditure during childhood. Science Adv. 2019;5(12):eaax1065. doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax1065.

14. Boschmann M, Steiniger J, Hille U, et al. Water-induced thermogenesis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:6015-6019.

15. Dubnov-Raz G, Constantini NW, Yariv H, et al. Influence of water drinking on resting energy expenditure in overweight children. Int J Obes (Lond). 2011;35(10):1295-300. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2011.130.

16. Massarini S, Ferrulli A, Ambrogi F, et al. Routine resting energy expenditure measurement increases the effectiveness of dietary intervention in obesity. Acta Diabetol. 2018;55(1):75-85. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00592-017-1064-0.

17. Okorokov P.L., Vasyukova O.V., Shiryaeva T.Yu. Basal metabolic rate at rest and factors of its variability in adolescents with simple obesity. Questions of children's nutrition. 2019;17(3):5-9. doi: https://doi.org/10.20953/1727-5784-2019-3-5-9

18. Hopkins M, Blundell JE. Energy balance, body composition, sedentariness and appetite regulation: pathways to obesity. Clin Sci (Lond). 2016;130:1615-28. doi: https://doi.org/10.1042/CS20160006

19. Rosales-Velderrain A, Goldberg RF, Ames GE, et al. Hypometabolizers: characteristics of obese patients with abnormally low resting energy expenditure. Am Surg. 2014;80:290-4. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/000313481408000325

20. Müller MJ, Enderle J, Bosy-Westphal A. Changes in Energy Expenditure with Weight Gain and Weight Loss in Humans. Curr Obes Rep. 2016;5:413-423. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13679-016-0237-4

21. Rodriguez G, Moreno LA, Sarría A, et al. Determinants of resting energy expenditure in obese and non-obese children and adolescents. J Physiol Biochem. 2002;58:9-16.

22. Hohenadel MG, Hollstein T, Thearle M, et al. A low resting metabolic rate in late childhood is associated with weight gain in adolescence. Metabolism. 2019;93:68-74. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2018.12.008.

23. Figueroa-Colon R, Arani RB, Goran MI, Weinsier RI. Paternal body fat is a longitudinal predictor of changes in body fat in premenarcheal girls. Am J Clinic Nutr. 2000;71:829-834. doi: https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/71.3.829

24. Bandini KG, Must A, Phillips SM, et al. Relationship of body mass index and body fatness to energy expenditure: longitudinal changes from pre-adolescence through adolescence. Am J Clinic Nutr. 2004;80:1262-1269. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/80.5.1262

25. Anthanont P, Jensen MD. Does basal metabolic rate predict weight gain? Am J Clinic Nutr. 2016;104(4):959-963. doi: https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.116.134965. Epub 2016 Aug 31.

26. Luke A, Durazo-Arvizu R, Cao G, et al. Positive association between resting energy expenditure and weight gain in a lean adult population. Am J Clinic Nutr. 2006;83(5):1076-81. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/83.5.1076.

27. Goran MI, Shewchuk R, Gower BA, et al. Longitudinal changes in fatness in white children: no effect of childhood energy expenditure. Am J Clinic Nutr. 1998;67(2):309-316. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/67.2. 309.

28. Cameron JD, Sigal RJ, Kenny GP, et al. Body composition and energy intake — skeletal muscle mass is the strongest predictor of food intake in obese adolescents: The HEARTY trial. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2016;41(6):611-7. doi: https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2015-0479. Epub 2016 Feb 8.

29. Okorokov P.L., Vasyukova O.V. Features of body composition and basal metabolism in adolescents with morbid obesity. Pediatrics. 2021;100(4):216-221.

30. Simoneau-Roy J, O'Gorman C, Pencharz P, et al. Insulin sensitivity and secretion in children and adolescents with hypothalamic obesity following treatment for craniopharyngioma. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2010;72(3):364-70. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2265.2009.03639.x. Epub 2009May 26

31. Bomer I, Saure C, Caminiti C, et al. Comparison of energy expenditure, body composition, metabolic disorders, and energy intake between obese children with a history of craniopharyngioma and children with multifactorial obesity. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2015;28(11-12):1305-12. doi: https://doi.org/10.1515/jpem-2015-0167.

32. Shaikh MG, Grundy RG, Kirk JM. Reductions in basal metabolic rate and physical activity contribute to hypothalamic obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(7):2588-93. doi: https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2007-2672.

33. Okorokov P.L., Kalinin A.L., Strebkova N.A., et al. Comparative assessment of energy metabolism, features of body composition and metabolic disorders in children with hypothalamic and constitutional-exogenous obesity // Obesity and metabolism. - 2020. - T. 17. - No. 3. - C. 249-256. doi: https://doi.org/10.14341/omet12552

34. Kim R, Shah R, Tershakovec A, et al. Energy expenditure in obesity associated with craniopharyngioma. Child's Nerv Syst. 2010;26:913-7. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-009-1078-1

35. Alsaif M, Elliot SA, MacKenzie ML, et al. Energy metabolism profile in individuals with Prader-Willi syndrome and implications for clinical management: A systematic review.

Learn more