Early stages of writing

Syllabary.

The next discovery on the way of the development of writing was the syllabary. This method differs from the previous ones by the presence of connection with pronunciation. Each of the characters denotes the sound of a particular syllable. Alphabet such alphabets contains on average 809 - 120 characters. Many languages ​​of that time come to such a system. Greek writing is based on it, which gave us the Latin alphabet and Cyrillic.

Alphabetical writing.

The final version of the search for a way to store and transmit information was an alphabetic or phonetic letter. It developed a series of signs, called the alphabet, denoting the individual sounds of our pronunciation. The general name of the signs is letters. Letters, like sounds, are written in the sequence of their pronunciation. Thus, at last, a simple system with enormous possibilities for displaying and storing information arose. Its main advantage is the ease of learning and use, and further mechanization and automation of the processes of recording, storing and disseminating information. nine0005

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3.1 History of writing

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Font

Fonts surround us everywhere.

We we use them constantly: read newspapers and books,

oriented in urban space, thanks to textual information.

Writing eat means communication between people and serves for transmission thoughts

and anchoring them in time. Font appeared How need

fixing oral speech. Initially arose patterned letter -

pictograms, which and now surround us in form information signs

and characters. But them range limited after all far not Everybody can present

such signs. That's why on shift pictographic letter

came letter hieroglyphic. hieroglyphs (ideograms) used

ancient Egyptians and before now since it developed in China Japan

and others countries East. Hieroglyph stands for whole word or even concept. nine0005

Some later appeared syllabic letter. This was significant stage

in development writing, but it uncomfortable So How signs must be

very many. syllabic by letter before present time enjoy

some peoples India. Most developed form writing is

phonetic letter, where each sound (phoneme) portrayed separate sign

(grapheme). Borrowed at Phoenicians literal letter served foundation

Greek alphabet, on basis whom were created forms signs

European fonts. Final view literal letter gave Latins

in I century before AD and with those since grapheme letters Latin font

practically not changed. Alphabetic or phonemic letter stands for

individual sounds speeches and in dependencies from pronunciation maybe vary.

Russian alphabet It has 33 characters then How him sound system consists of from 39phonemes.

To example, Latin alphabet consists of from 23 characters Italian - from 21,

Czech - from 38, Armenian - from 39. Our letter not maybe send

Everybody sound nuances language and called upon only differentiate and to distinguish words.

So, font from German words script (literal meaning - letter)

regardless from technology performance called graphic form

certain letters. Font - living expression spirit and style his time. nine0005

Knowledge him fundamentals and aesthetic sight on font -guarantee professional work graphic designer.

history letters studies special historical and philological the science - paleography. She is studies monuments ancient writing, economic and social factors affecting development letters and formation him styles, evolution graphic forms letters, proportions them elements, materials and tools letters. These same questions considered in graphic design at designing fonts and graphic compositions. Apart from general historical and theoretical questions graphic designer necessary know peculiarities and properties font styles and headset, technical parameters fonts, them behavior in shallow and major skittles, him technical and aesthetic quality in various types textual and display case set. Everybody it necessary at designing various typographic forms from brochures and calling cards before books and advertising poster. nine0005

Typographic fonts, developed for textual and display case set, not always fit for expressions nuances advertising compositions. Often required fonts with expressive characteristic drawing letters and perfect logic them shaping. This requirements in complete measure meet historical forms letters. Knowledge historical forms letters and laws them shaping help designer to avoid in work possible stylistic errors.

Egyptian letter formed in XXXV century before n. e. in era ancient kingdoms. Walls internal premises pyramids decorated painted and reliefs, in which plot scenes from life pharaoh accompanied images animals, birds, plants. AT it time formed canonical system pictorial art. Main regulations Egyptian canon fixed in sculptural and graphic images, which determined proportions, angles, movements depicted human and were obligatory for artist. nine0005

ancient in world system letters had three varieties - hieroglyphic, hieratic and demotic. AT himself ancient hieroglyphic letter semantic information passed on hieroglyphs, in graphic basis which was image of people, plants, animals, structures, guns labor. Ideograms meant individual words or concepts, a same clarified meaning words. Preserved scrolls worldwide famous "Books Dead" (1250 year before n. e.), in which collected funeral texts various content, written hieroglyphs and accompanied drawings. nine0005

From hieroglyphic Egyptian letters formed two kind cursive letters - hieratic and more complex - demotic, in which subject character hieroglyphs turned in conditionally graphic. Demotic letter before present time not decoded. carrier cursive Egyptian letters was papyrus, for letters used red or black dye, tool letters was cane feather - kalam.

Sumerian letter developed with XXX century before n. e. in era Babylon-Assyrian culture. AT Sumerian letter to ideographic signs, denoting words, steel add syllabic designations - So arises verbal-syllabic letter. Linear picture ideographic signs became be reproduced indentation edge rectangular sticks in tiles from raw clay with subsequent them firing, in result what in clay remained wedge-shaped recesses. Gradually signs simplified and concrete Images hieroglyphs transformed in conditional compositions from wedges. Direction letters in early was vertical (on right left), later became horizontal (left right). Application clay boards explained topics what in cities Mesopotamia clay was main material for manufacturing practically all items homemade everyday life. Sumerian letter was transcribed in XIX century. Before our days came big amount clay cuneiform tiles. On them placed business the documents, epic, magical texts. by the most bright representative Sumerian cuneiform is an vault laws king Ham-murapi, created in XVIII century before n. e. and representing yourself pillar, coated text. Sumero-Babylonian culture can name civilization writing. nine0005

Cretan letter developed with XX century before n. e. on island Crete and in Greece in era Aegean culture in cities Athens, Troy, Mycenae. Early Cretan letter was hieroglyphic, later -linear-syllabic. Crete letter scientists divided on linear letter. Texts made on clay boards. By content it religious rituals, myths, legends, inventory inventory.

Phoenician letter developed in XV century before n. e. on Eastern coast Mediterranean seas. Phoenician letter letter-vein-sound or alphabetical, when alone sound corresponds one letter. Number graphemes with development letters decreased with 30 to 22. Materials for letters were clay and a rock. Texts Phoenician letters almost fully lost survived only inscriptions on iconic monuments, facilities and household items. By

content it's in basically epic, hymns to the gods and description ritual actions. From Phoenician alphabet lead its origin Almost all European modern writing systems. nine0005

Greek letter developing in VIII century before n. e. in era Homer. First written monuments Greek archaic are poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey". Greek archaic letter develops on basis Phoenician letters. AT process development in Greek letter were made additional letters for more accurate transmission features language. On primary stage development letters in alphabet absent vowels letters. Independent vowels letters were introduced later, what became important stage in development letters. Main materials for letters steel wooden boards, covered layer wax. wrote on boards copper rod - style, which was with one sides sharp - for letters, with another wide - for making amends written. Direction letters in Greek archaic at first was on right left, then So called letter - boustrophedon (from Greek words "bull" and "turn"). At this letter first line was written on right left, second - left right, third -again on right left. With IV century before n. e. steel write Everybody lines only left right. nine0005

Roman monumental letter developing in IV century before AD in era Roman republics, when in ancient Rome were built forums, amphitheatres, terms and basilicas. Roman monumental letter was composite part architectural structures, embodying power Rome. This before Total triumphant arches and columns. Early form Roman letters completes stage formation signs Latin minuscule . Basic aesthetic characteristic Latin minuscule - it different-width signs alphabet. AT era monumental letters development alphabet and technological improvements processing stone led to appearance in signs horizontal serifs. Idea serifs becomes obvious when font line is between horizontal lines. Archaic letter was "free" font line not was strictly horizontal, signs not were put on one line and were different size. Horizontal serifs steel more precisely "Keep" line font and leveled height signs. nine0005

Roman classic letter developing in end I century before n. e. in era Roman empire. This time great Roman poets - Virgil, Horace, Ovid. AT first century our era book

acquires modern view code (before IV century parallel existed and scroll). AT 113 architect Apollodorus Damascus built in Rome forum emperor Trajan: across triumphant arch was input on square, framed colonnade, in center which stood equestrian a statue Trajan. Square closed basilica and Greek latin library, between which stood Column Trajan, the only thing preserved before present time co-

weapons forum. Height columns - 38 meters. Be surface covered spiral ribbon relief, on which depicted 2500 figures. Embossed compositions tell about campaigns Trajan in Dacia. On plinth in basis columns situated plate with text. Inscription consists of from six lines, average height letters - 10 centimeters. Plate located much above human growth, that's why height letters in each line increased starting out with bottom, approximately on 5%, in result height bottom lines less top on 28%. Thanks to this difference in altitude lines, viewer it seems what Everybody letters in words one size. Font columns Trajan is an the best exemplary Roman monumental classical letters and contemporary font art. He strikes complexity and perfection letters, impeccability style and proportional harmony graphic elements everyone sign and all compositions in in general. AT first century in stories development letters ended stage formation Latin majuscula, and on basis Roman classical letters started era formation Latin bookstore nine0210 minuscule , era handwritten books and calligraphic fonts.

Handwritten book fonts . Each handwritten font book form letters has individual shaping features, but their brings together tool letters - flat pen, common writing rule, defining basic movement pen - top down and from left to right, and consistent discontinuity pen movements when writing - ductality letters. With I century development book writing accompanied development folk shorthand. most brightly this process proved himself in Carolingian minuscule, later in numerous options bastard letter and in humanistic book writing. cursive develops in conditions maximum freedom from prescribed tricks and rules, without which is impossible none book letter, so cursive in development forms always ahead of book writing and on certain stages modernizes him. Important development factor gothic letters is so-called polymorphism, term used in paleography to denote cases applications new forms letters by at the request of the scripter, in spite of Existence in each workshop canonical copybook - "notebook teachers" who developed for learning bookish letter. AT polymorphism appeared creative master ambition, forced study correspondence books, business responsible and tedious. In addition to formal style-forming factors big influence to handwritten font form rendered economic factor that on each stage of development letters demanded raise font capacity. nine0005

Square letter . Roman square letter develops co II century, in era escalating political and economic crisis Roman empire. For manufacturing books steel apply parchment, invented in Malaya Asia, in city perga-me, where him made from skins domestic animals. By comparison with papyrus parchment was much more expensive in manufacturing, much stronger had smooth surface with two sides, therefore on German can was write on both sides. AT special cases sheets parchment stained in yellow, blue, purple and even black colors, a on painted surfaces wrote gold or silver. square and rustic letter developed at the same time. square letter was official by letter courtiers office and applied for design business papers, letters, documents. Letter was difficult and slow many signs had to not write, a draw flat pen, to save grapheme classical monumental letters. square letter applied in handwritten books for small excretory texts and headlines approximately before X century. nine0005

square and rustic letter more save grapheme signs Roman monumental letters, staying majuscular. However under influence changed tools, materials and technologies letters in them already going on graphic transformation signs . AT process development letter simplified, violated classical heterogeneity signs. AT square letter signs visually equalized on width and approaching to square, what reflected in himself him name.

Rustic . B rustic letter heterogeneity signs alphabet is preserved but acquires new aesthetic quality, conditioned new requirements to typeface form and her functions among which on first place economy, speed and good readability letters. She is wide applied How in production books, So and in everyday life. AT process development rustic letters happened unification signs alphabet. Elements signs adapted to natural and convenient movements hands, in result what much increased not only speed, but and economy letters. Rustic wide applied before XI century How decorative letter. constructive completeness rustics in majuscular form and, How consequence, failure to her to transition in form minuscule - steel cause her oblivion. nine0005

Uncial . Roman uncial with IV century develops in conditions domination Christian religion. AT 324 emperor Constantine founded new the capital Roman empire on place cities Byzantium - Constantinople. With this time in art criticism accepted to consider history Byzantine culture. Uncial letter is an primary stage formation Latin minuscule and develops on basis Roman square letters, starts Search new minuscule graphemes, maximum adapted for fast, easy readable economical letters. Economic requirements to letter conditioned before total application in bookstore deed very expensive parchment and decrease sizes books. Decrease heights textual lines led to need endure elements graphically complex signs up and down behind line font and eliminate diagonal elements signs inside textual line, topics most "highlighting" her and doing more readable. Material letters was parchment, tool letters was cane flat feather. nine0005

Half ounce . C V century in Roman semiuniale continues development bookstores minuscule signs under influence cursive. Majority signs Latin alphabet on this stage maxi

little adapted to fast letter. Formed new aesthetic typeface charts, cardinally distinguished from aesthetics classical monumental square and rustic letters. Half ounce letter distributed by to VI century by throughout Europe. largest contribution to the development Latin letters Anglo-Saxon semiuncial letter from very rich colored decor. In the era half ounces books are decorated colored ornamented initials and miniatures on biblical stories. nine0005

Carolingian minuscule developing with VIII century in royal dynasty, based Carl Great. Cultural climb happened in mostly on territories France and Germany. Co. yard involved educated and talented people co all Europe. opened new schools, developed pictorial art, architecture, literature. reborn interest to secular knowledge, "seven free arts" antique period: grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music. Developing bookstore miniature, different dynamics compositions and precision drawing. AT era Carolingian revival was formed Latin lowercase alphabet. Perfection Carolingian minuscule - it result painstaking work many generations masters handwritten books. A bunch of options letters Carolingian minuscule brings together ease performance, legibility and purity style. On shift Carolingian minuscule will come era gothic fonts and printed books. Later, on basis Carolingian minuscule will developed typographic font, determined graphics Latin alphabet. nine0005

Gothic letter . Gothic style originated in northern France in middle XII century, when starts organized manufacturing books. AT monasteries were special premises - scriptoria, in which worked monks, census takers books. Work continued not more 6 hours and only in daytime time, enjoy candles was forbidden. monks worked sitting, parchment located on oblique plane, How on easel. Talk in scriptoria strictly was forbidden input in scriptorium, Besides scripters, allowed only monastic authorities. Finished manuscript received to corrector for checks and comparisons text with original. From corrector book passed to the rubricator which pointed out start phrases or paragraphs red paint, in contemporary polygraphy survived expression -red line. On last stage book passed to portholes, which decorated manuscript ornaments, painted capital letters letters and miniatures. were finishing manufacturing books pe-

repellers. Lids binding were made from tree and tight-fitting skin or matter. On hardback fixed carved plates and lateral fasteners from gold and silver with coinage and precious stones. AT medieval libraries especially valuable book often chained to bookstore shelf. AT 13th century gothic letter became dominating in Europe. Graphic traditions Carolingian minuscule obsolete gradually on throughout almost two centuries under influence several reasons. This before Total pursuit cheapen book products behind check savings very expensive parchment. Sharp increased demand on books led to emergence urban workshops, which were interested in reduction time rewriting books. As a result font maximum narrows much decrease distances between letters and words ducts letters become the same type process letters turned in "stamping" letters on line from several modular graphic elements. Appearance gothic letters necessary to consider not How new stage in development Latin letters, a How another stage in development Latin minuscule. Gothic majuscule was from stylized lowercase and uppercase signs, who are not intended for writing text, a applied only for writing headlines and performed role capital letters letters inside text. Gothic letter It has three main forms - it texture, rotunda and fracture. AT end XIV century main graphic signs gothic letters are changing appears So called bastard letter, last thing gothic letter. It was more free in writing, more wide on proportions signs and less economical. Explained these changes in letter topics what for manufacturing books steel apply paper, which was much cheaper parchment. Gothic letter developed How letter bookstore. It much cheapened book, having done her more affordable and democratic a him modular design contributed final formation graphemes Latin minuscule. nine0005

Texture . First gothic letter - texture, develops in Germany with end XII century, rational, modular letter, in which Everybody signs, including round, consist from direct and diagonal elements. AT typeface line respected clear rhythm black and white colors. Thickness vertical element, distance between verticals sign and between signs in word was equal to width flat pen. Proportions signs elongated, attitude heights vertical element to him thickness How 5:1. On page text located in two columns. Texture difficult read tex-

coma the strip looked dense and black. from afar the text was similar for weaving fabric threads, so this font named texture. book pages decorated multicolor initials, miniatures and ornament.

Rotunda . B XIV century in Italy develops round-gothic letter - rotunda. Rotunda wider lighter textures and easy read behind check appearance round signs and signs with diagonal graphic elements "V, W, x, Y". Direct signs in rotunda without serifs, fractures in vertical elements, characteristic for textures, preserved but steel more smooth. AT rotunda much decreases amount ducts, what raises speed letters. AT stories development typeface forms round-gothic letter considered one from the most beautiful European styles letters. By technique performance and aesthetic characteristics rotunda approaching to early humanistic letter. AT medieval book text accompanied colorful miniatures, initials and ornament. Often plot-ornamental composition filled all page, leaving for text only small place. book ornament was under construction on images plants, animals, birds, which sometimes amaze their realism. nine0005

Humanist letter developing in XV century in era early Renaissance. To this time formed handwritten uppercase alphabet - cursive majusculum AT humanistic letter Latin alphabet already considered How mandatory set uppercase and lowercase signs with common stylistic signs. Humanistic majuscule easy read and applied in letter not only in quality capital letters letters, but and for small texts. This distinguishes him from late gothic majuscula, which was hard to read and used only for headlines and decorative capital letters letters in text. AT humanistic letter maximum decreases amount ducts, what much increases speed letters. vertical elements signs not have kinks, characteristic for all species gothic letters. humanistic minuscule much expands, decreases contrast signs, textual line becomes lighter and easy readable even at small height. With development typography humanistic letter is divided on handwritten and typographic, before this time typographic fonts were copy handwritten. nine0005

Slavic letter . First mentions about Slavic writing relate to beginning IX century, samples this letters not preserved. Development writing at Slavs related with names vi-

Zantian missionary preachers Kirill and him brother Methodius. O time occurrence ancient Slavic letters very few information, known only, what before arrival Thessalonica brothers" writing at Slavs already was. By question origin Glagolitic and Cyrillic researchers divided on two camps. Alone consider, what Glagolitic more early origin, about how He speaks her graphic complexity. Other suppose what Kirill I will come -

small Glagolitic, a Cyrillic arose much later. Most probably, what Kirill on basis Greek alphabet developed Slavic alphabet and together with Methodius translated with Greek language and wrote on Slavic liturgical books. AT ancient Cyrillic was 24 letters from Greek alphabet and 13 specially created signs for transmission specific sounds Slavic language, among them signs - "B, AND, and , H, Sh, SCH, b , S, b, uh, YU, I AM". nine0005

Charter developing with 9th century and is an copy Greco-Byzantine bookstore letters. Baptism Rus', started prince Vladimir in 988, and official introduction Christianity in end X century contribute development Slavic writing and fast dissemination literacy. To ancient monuments authorized letters applies "Ostromirovo Gospel", written in Novgorod in 1056. Book It has format 30x35 cm, written she is on parchment three handwriting and decorated miniatures evangelists colored ornamental screensavers and drop caps. First handwriting gospels with 1 by 25 page on skill performance much more perfect two others and no doubt was ob-

sample for imitations. Charter wrote books, business paper, letters. Charter XI century is different severity and clarity letters. Direct letters located on equal to distance friend from friend without separation on words.

Semi . Semi-statutory letter develops with XIV century and to XV century finally displaces charter. Increasing need in books and acceleration bookstore letters leads to change charts charter. intensifies influence tool letters, letters bend over right, what corresponds natural hand movement at letter, in signs appear remote elements. Semi-statutory letter read much easier text, written charter. For acceleration letters and for savings expensive parchment census takers books applied nine0210 ligatures (connection two letters friend with friend), injected cuts often encountered words (over abbreviated word put sign -title). From Greek letters was rescheduled practice productions accents in everyone word. Books decorated monochrome or multicolor ornamental screensavers, drop caps, decorative drawings, miniatures with biblical plots. AT decoration books developed individual styles, which wore folk character and borrowed motives compositions from handicraft products with images stylized animals, birds, plants. Especially often animals portrayed in colored initials, where they bizarre way intertwined with elements stylized vegetable and geometric ornament. plot picture often placed inside text How illustration to especially important places storytelling. 1564 Ivan Fedorov half charter printed "Apostle" - first printed book with weekend information about performers. Semi-statutory letter, practically not changing applied before start XVIII century. nine0005

Civil ABC . By decree Petra I in december 1706 in shtetl Zhovkva under Lviv at headquarters AND. D. Menshikov organized center on creation drawings new alphabet. Originals drawings new letters performed draftsman and draftsman Coolen-bang. Supposed, what new font developed on sketches Petra I but, more likely Total, is he only argued sketches, bringing their amendments and comments. Cyrillic and latin signs - historically related graphic systems. perfection latin classics was potential aesthetics Cyrillic. one January 1708 released decree Petra I about printing civil books new Russians letters, a already March 28 was printed "Geo-

metria" - first book, typed new civil font. Final picture signs civil alphabet was approved in 1710. AT charter and half charter signs alphabet not shared on lowercase and uppercase. This separation first for Cyrillic letters occurred in civil alphabet, what considerably improved readability typographical text. AT civil alphabet besides changes drawing font, was carried out reform composition alphabet and rules set text: were excluded stress, cuts in words, a same excluded 11 letters duplicate sounds.

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