The alphabetic principle
The Alphabetic Principle | Reading Rockets
Not knowing letter names is related to children's difficulty in learning letter sounds and in recognizing words. Children cannot understand and apply the alphabetic principle (understanding that there are systematic and predictable relationships between written letters and spoken sounds) until they can recognize and name a number of letters.
Children whose alphabetic knowledge is not well developed when they start school need sensibly organized instruction that will help them identify, name, and write letters. Once children are able to identify and name letters with ease, they can begin to learn letter sounds and spellings.
Children appear to acquire alphabetic knowledge in a sequence that begins with letter names, then letter shapes, and finally letter sounds. Children learn letter names by singing songs such as the "Alphabet Song," and by reciting rhymes. They learn letter shapes as they play with blocks, plastic letters, and alphabetic books. Informal but planned instruction in which children have many opportunities to see, play with, and compare letters leads to efficient letter learning. This instruction should include activities in which children learn to identify, name, and write both upper case and lower case versions of each letter.
What is the "alphabetic principle"?
Children's reading development is dependent on their understanding of the alphabetic principle – the idea that letters and letter patterns represent the sounds of spoken language. Learning that there are predictable relationships between sounds and letters allows children to apply these relationships to both familiar and unfamiliar words, and to begin to read with fluency.
The goal of phonics instruction is to help children to learn and be able to use the Alphabetic Principle. The alphabetic principle is the understanding that there are systematic and predictable relationships between written letters and spoken sounds. Phonics instruction helps children learn the relationships between the letters of written language and the sounds of spoken language.
Two issues of importance in instruction in the alphabetic principle are the plan of instruction and the rate of instruction.
The alphabetic principle plan of instruction
- Teach letter-sound relationships explicitly and in isolation.
- Provide opportunities for children to practice letter-sound relationships in daily lessons.
- Provide practice opportunities that include new sound-letter relationships, as well as cumulatively reviewing previously taught relationships.
- Give children opportunities early and often to apply their expanding knowledge of sound-letter relationships to the reading of phonetically spelled words that are familiar in meaning.
Rate and sequence of instruction
No set rule governs how fast or how slow to introduce letter-sound relationships. One obvious and important factor to consider in determining the rate of introduction is the performance of the group of students with whom the instruction is to be used.
Furthermore, there is no agreed upon order in which to introduce the letter-sound relationships. It is generally agreed, however, that the earliest relationships introduced should be those that enable children to begin reading words as soon as possible. That is, the relationships chosen should have high utility. For example, the spellings m, a, t, s, p, and h are high utility, but the spellings x as in box, gh, as in through, ey as in they, and a as in want are of lower utility.
It is also a good idea to begin instruction in sound-letter relationships by choosing consonants such as f, m, n, r, and s, whose sounds can be pronounced in isolation with the least distortion. Stop sounds at the beginning or middle of words are harder for children to blend than are continuous sounds.
Instruction should also separate the introduction of sounds for letters that are auditorily confusing, such as /b/ and /v/ or /i/ and /e/, or visually confusing, such as b and d or p and g.
Instruction might start by introducing two or more single consonants and one or two short vowel sounds. It can then add more single consonants and more short vowel sounds, with perhaps one long vowel sound. It might next add consonant blends, followed by digraphs (for example, th, sh, ch), which permits children to read common words such as this, she, and chair. Introducing single consonants and consonant blends or clusters should be introduced in separate lessons to avoid confusion.
The point is that the order of introduction should be logical and consistent with the rate at which children can learn. Furthermore, the sound-letter relationships chosen for early introduction should permit children to work with words as soon as possible.
Many teachers use a combination of instructional methods rather than just one. Research suggests that explicit, teacher-directed instruction is more effective in teaching the alphabetic principle than is less-explicit and less-direct instruction.
Guidelines for rate and sequence of instruction
- Recognize that children learn sound-letter relationships at different rates.
- Introduce sound-letter relationships at a reasonable pace, in a range from two to four letter-sound relationships a week.
- Teach high-utility letter-sound relationships early.
- Introduce consonants and vowels in a sequence that permits the children to read words quickly.
- Avoid the simultaneous introduction of auditorily or visually similar sounds and letters.
- Introduce single consonant sounds and consonant blends/clusters in separate lessons.
- Provide blending instruction with words that contain the letter-sound relationships that children have learned.
The Alphabetic Principle: From Phonological Awareness to Reading Words
What Is The Alphabetic Principle?
Connecting letters with their sounds to read and write is called the “alphabetic principle.” For example, a child who knows that the written letter “m” makes the /mmm/ sound is demonstrating the alphabetic principle.
Letters in words tell us how to correctly “sound out” (i.e., read) and write words. To master the alphabetic principle, readers must have phonological awareness skills and be able to recognize individual sounds in spoken words. Learning to read and write becomes easier when sounds associated with letters are recognized automatically.
The alphabetic principle has two parts:
- Alphabetic understanding is knowing that words are made up of letters that represent the sounds of speech.
- Phonological recoding is knowing how to translate the letters in printed words into the sounds they make to read and pronounce the words accurately.
The alphabetic principle is critical in reading and understanding the meaning of text. In typical reading development, children learn to use the alphabetic principle fluently and automatically. This allows them to focus their attention on understanding the meaning of the text, which is the primary purpose of reading.
Learning and applying the alphabetic principle takes time and is difficult for most children. There are many letters to learn the sounds of, and there are many ways to arrange the letters to produce the vast number of different words used in print. Also, in English, the same letter can represent more than one sound, depending on the word (e.g., the /a/ sounds are different in the words “mat” and “mate”). In Spanish, by contrast, which also includes the vowel “a” in its alphabet, the /a/ sound is always pronounced the same way (e.g., the /a/ in “casa”) regardless what word it is in.
Irregular Words
Some words, called irregular words, cannot be read accurately using the alphabetic principle to “sound them out” (e.g., the words “was,” “is,” and “know” are not accurately pronounced using phonics rules). Irregular words require a different teaching approach than teaching how to read words that follow a rule-based, letter-sound structure.
Despite the presence of irregular words, learning the alphabetic principle thoroughly and using it to read unfamiliar words, is a much better strategy than trying to memorize how to accurately read each word as a whole word, or guessing what the word might be based on its first letter and the words before or after it in the text.
Explicit Phonics Instruction
Explicit phonics instruction—i.e., how the alphabetic principle works, step by step—and extensive practice enables most children to learn the alphabetic principle. Below are effective strategies for teaching the alphabetic principle. These same strategies can be used with children who struggle learning to read, including children with reading disabilities or dyslexia. For students who struggle, highly systematic and explicit instruction plus lots of accuracy practice will be necessary for them to learn the alphabetic principle thoroughly.
All alphabetic languages can be taught using phonics and the alphabetic principle to guide instruction. However, alphabetic languages—English, Spanish, French, Turkish, Vietnamese, and many others—differ dramatically in their alphabetic principle complexity. For example, English is quite complex—there are many rules and exceptions to those rules that need to be learned to read and write correctly.
Spanish is much less complex. Letters typically make only one sound regardless of the word they are in and rule exceptions are very few compared to English. For example, Spanish vowels only make one sound. In some cases, the vowel is silent as the letter “u” is in the word, “que.”
Teach Students To Connect Letters To Their Most Common Sound Or Sounds
All 26 letters in English make at least one predictable or common sound depending on the other letters in the word. For example, each of the three letters in the word “mat” makes its most common sound. In the word “meat” the “m” and “t” make the same sound as they do in “mat” and the “ea” letter combination makes its most common sound when these letters are together in a word. Notice that in the word “meat,” there is only one sound for “ea” even though there are two letters. Teachers can sequence and deliver instruction in a way that helps students efficiently learn the “rules” for the different sounds that letters and letter combinations make.
Teach Students To Read Words Using What They Know About The Sounds That Letters And Letter Combinations Make
In using the alphabetic principle, students “blend” the sounds made by individual letters into a whole word. For example, the sounds /m/ /a/ /t/ made by the letters “m,” “a,” and “t” are blended together seamlessly to make the word “mat.” Students should begin learning to read by producing the individual sounds in words and blending the sounds together quickly to produce the whole word with simple CVC words (consonant-vowel-consonant) before progressing to more complex word types that follow other important phonics rules. During instruction, teachers can use a strategy such as “I Do, We Do, You Do” to show students what to do (how to blend), practice with them (students do it with the teacher), and then the students do it on their own to show their teacher they know how to do it. Teaching several of the most common sounds for a few individual letters allows students to read many different words depending on letter order.
Teaching other rule types (e.g., letter combinations such as “ea” and “th,” the “Bossy E” rule when “e” comes at the end of a CVC word, and so forth) enables students to accurately read a vast number of words they have never encountered in text.
Have Students Begin Reading Texts That Contain A High Percentage Of Decodable Words
Early in learning to read, students can begin reading simple books that contain words they can read on their own using the rules of the alphabetic principle. These decodable texts have a high percentage of words that follow common alphabetic principle rules. Students can practice reading these books to build their reading fluency, which helps them focus their attention on understanding the meaning of the text.
Many common words such as “was,” “said” and “of” are irregular words—i.e., they do not follow common alphabetic principle rules. The most common irregular words should be taught early in reading development so that students will be able to read more expanded and interesting texts that are otherwise highly decodable.
Infographics
Suggested Citation
Baker, S.K., Santiago, R.T., Masser, J., Nelson, N.J., & Turtura, J. (2018). The Alphabetic Principle: From Phonological Awareness to Reading Words. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, Office of Special Education Programs, National Center on Improving Literacy. Retrieved from http://improvingliteracy.org.
References
Carnine, D., Silbert, J., & Kame’enui, E. J. (1997). Direct instruction reading. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Ehri, L. C. (1991). Development of the ability to read words. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2), 383–417. New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Harn, B., Simmons, D. C., & Kame’enui, E. J. (2003). Institute on Beginning Reading II: Enhancing alphabetic principle instruction in core reading instruction [PowerPoint slides].
Retrieved from http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/downloads/instruction/big_five/enh...
Liberman, I. Y., & Liberman, A. M. (1990). Whole language vs. code emphasis: Underlying assumptions and their implications for reading instruction. Annals of Dyslexia, 40(1), 51–76. doi:10.1007/bf02648140
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction No. 00-4769). Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Retrieved from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/smallbook.htm
Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21(4), 360–407. doi:10.1598/rrq.21.4.1
Wagner, R. K., & Torgesen, J. K. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills.
Psychological Bulletin, 101(2), 192–212. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.101.2.192
Alphabetical principle | Notary of Khimki Vladimirova E.I.
Dear ladies and gentlemen, please note that in relation to the property of citizens who died after November 01, 2005, inheritance cases are carried out taking into account the alphabetical principle - by the first letter of the surname of the deceased.
Vladimirova Ekaterina Ivanovna (Khimki, Babakina st., 4A) since November 01, 2011 — T, U.
Kuzovkov Ilya Alekseevich (Khimki, Moskovskaya st., 14) July 2008 - F, L, X.
Mamedova Inna Stanislavovna (Khimki, Proletarskaya st., 17, tel. 573-95-79) from January 01, 1996 to November 01, 2005 - Proletarskaya, st. Engels Mayakovsky, st. Pervomayskaya, st. Union, st. R. Luxembourg, st. Moscow, st. Ring, st. Kirov, st. Krasnoarmeyskaya, st. Soviet army, st. Krylova, st. Dzerzhinsky, st. May 9, st. Friendship st. Birch alley, North-Western microdistrict, Nagornoe highway, st.
Yunnatov, st. Youth, st. Builders, st. Mashintseva, st. Chkalova, Starbeevsky settlement district, Klyazma rural district, from November 01, 2005 - C
Kalinichenko Taras Grigoryevich (Khimki, Engels str., 7/15, office 8, tel. (498) 624-57-10) Inheritance cases to the property of citizens who died before January 01, 1996. from January 01 1996 to November 01, 2005 - Prospect Mira, Yubileiny Prospect, st. Pozharsky, st. Green, st. Library, st. Sovkhoznaya, st. Nakhimov, st. Nevsky, st. Burdenko, st. Moskvina, Novopodrezkovsky settlement district, since November 01, 2005 - O, V, G
Eismont Ivan Bronislavovich (Khimki, Leningradskaya st., 1, room 397, tel. 573-76-44) from January 01, 1996 to November 01, 2005 - st. Pharmacy, st. Kalinin, Chapaeva, st. M. Raskova, st. Leningradskaya, st. Spartakovskaya, st. Z. Kosmodemyanskoy, st. Park, st. Communist, st. Krasnaya Gorka, st. Chernyshevsky, st. Opanasenko, pos. Spartak, from November 01, 2005 - K, Y
Oksana Anatolyevna Neurova (Khimki, Yubileyny avenue, 7, tel.
570-79-66) from January 01, 1996 to November 01, 2005 - st. March 8, st. Pavlova, Michurin St., st. Vatutina, st. Gogol, st. Zheleznodorozhnaya, Zhukovsky st., st. Grushina, st. Osipenko, st. Lavochkina, st. Butat Melnikova, st. Glinka, st. Kudryavtseva, st. Pionerskaya, settlement Novogorsk. from November 01, 2005 - D, 3, I
Andrey Mikhailovich Dorovskikh (Khimki, Skhodnya microdistrict, Kirova st., 3, tel. Skhodnya; since November 01, 2005 - N, R) since July 17, 2008 - N, R.
Irina Nikolaevna Lyubarova (Khimki, Skhodnya microdistrict, Pervomayskaya st., 21, tel. 574-64- 86) from November 01, 2005 - P.
Baranov Valery Valentinovich (Khimki, Pervomaiskaya st., 5, tel. 508-92-82) From November 01, 2005 - A, B, F, E, F, Z. Since July 01, 2008 - A, B, E, E, Z.
Reznikov Sergey Alekseevich (Khimki, Leningradskaya st., 17, tel. 573-62-59) From November 01, 2005 - F, X, C, H, W, S. From July 01, 2008 - F , C, Ch, Sh, Shch.
Maslenko Alexander Nikolaevich (Khimki, Babakin St.
, building 4A, t. 514-37-12) From January 01, 1996 to November 01, 2005 - Leninsky Prospekt, Kurkinskoye highway, st. Victory, st. Babakina, st. Panfilov, st. Rodionova, st. M. R
| BASIC RULES FOR DESIGNING A BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST OF REFERENCES
Book (quoted) bibliographic list (list of used sources and references) - a bibliographic manual containing bibliographic descriptions of used (cited, considered, mentioned) and (or) recommended documents. The list of references is an obligatory part of a term paper, diploma or other scientific work and shows the student's ability to put into practice the knowledge gained in the study of relevant academic disciplines, reflects the independent creative work done by the author to collect and analyze the material, documented and substantiates the reliability and accuracy the facts given in the text of the work, statistical data, quotations and other information borrowed from various sources. Grouping of material in the bibliography
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The source of information for the bibliographic description is the title page or other parts of the document that replace it. Bibliographic description scheme Description title. Title proper : information relating to the title / statement of responsibility. - Publication information. – Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication. - Volume. Examples of a bibliographic description Books without an author Books of the same author Books by two authors Books by three authors Books by four or more authors Dictionaries and encyclopedias Multi-volume editions Official documents Analytical description Analytical is the description of the component part of the document (articles, chapters, etc.), which looks like this: Article, section, chapter From the dictionary Periodicals Articles from newspapers Articles from magazines Local access electronic resources Remote access electronic resources Registration of bibliographic references Bibliographic reference - contains bibliographic information about another document cited, considered or mentioned in the text of the document (its component part or group of documents), necessary and sufficient for its identification, search and general characteristics. The following references are distinguished by their location in the document: SUBLINE (the most common) - placed at the bottom of the page, under the main text, from which they are separated by a horizontal line of arbitrary length. in the text: The daily turnover of the world foreign exchange market ranges from 500 million to 4 trillion. US dollars. 1 in the text: If a language is a set of lexico-phraseological and grammatical means used by its speakers for the purposes of communication, influence, then style is the techniques, methods, manner of their use. 1 in the text: Certificates may be needed to present to a bank, a company, an embassy, a pension fund. 1 INLINE - Placed directly on the line after the referenced text and enclosed in parentheses. in the text: The port's cargo turnover amounted to 3.6 million tons (Problems of Economics. 2010. No. 3. P. 5-12) in the text: The object of taxation by the exchange tax is the turnover of securities on the stock exchange (Lazareva N.V. Taxes and taxation: textbook. Rostov n / D, 2009.) in the text: One hundred years ago V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote: “Asia enlightened Europe, and Europe conquered Asia. Now Europe enlightens Asia. Will Asia repeat the same operation over Europe? (Klyuchevsky V. O. Letters. Diaries. Aphorisms and thoughts about history. M., 1968. P. 34) OUT-TEXT - used to link the text of a document with a bibliographic list. They are denoted by square brackets, which contain the serial number of the source in the list and specific pages on which information is used or cited in the source itself: in the text: Exchange tax - exchange turnover tax. The object of taxation is the turnover of securities on the stock exchange [12, p. 26]. in the bibliographic list: When several bibliographic references to one document are written in a row on one page, the words "Ibid" are given in the repeated reference and the corresponding pages are indicated. Subscript: Intra-text link: Primary: (Political conflictology. M., 2002. P. 169-178) Features of compiling bibliographic references to electronic resources The objects of compiling a bibliographic reference are electronic resources of local and remote access. Links are both to electronic resources in general (electronic documents, databases, portals, sites, web pages, forums, etc.) and to components of electronic resources (sections and parts of electronic documents, portals, sites, publications in electronic serials, forum posts, web pages, etc.) 
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A well-composed list and the given bibliographic references and footnotes to a certain extent are also an expression of scientific ethics and the culture of scientific work. Therefore, the issues of compiling and designing a bibliographic list and providing bibliographic references in scientific work should be given the most serious attention. Compiling a list is a lengthy process that begins simultaneously with the choice of a topic for work. It is necessary to maintain a bibliographic card index, writing out from catalogs, card indexes, bibliographic manuals, lists the output of all publications that may be relevant to the research topic. When reading each source, the bibliographic data are checked and specified. Quotations, factual, statistical and other information are issued with an exact indication of the page on which they were published. 
Each source is only mentioned once in the list, regardless of how often it is referenced in the text. 
I. 
Yu. Personnel management: textbook. allowance / T. Yu. Bazarov. - M. : Academy, 2003. - 218 p. 
V. Analysis of the scientific potential / V. V. Kiselev, T. E. Kuznetsova, Z. Z. Kuznetsov. - M. : Nauka, 1991. - 126 p. 
allowance / A. A. Brass [and others] - Minsk: UE "Technoprint", 2002. -387 p. 
- 2005. - No. 15. Art. 1275. 
- P. 51-91 
Terentyeva // Money and credit. - 2005. - no. 12. - S. 54-57. 
Doronina L. You were asked to issue a certificate // Personnel business. 2006. No. 9. P. 35 
45] , where 8 is the serial number in the bibliographic list, p. 45 - page 
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