New way reading scheme levels
School reading schemes explained | TheSchoolRun
Ask any parent of a Reception child about Biff, Chip and Kipper, and they’ll know exactly who you’re talking about. But just how do primary school reading schemes work, and how can you tell if your child is progressing at the right rate? Lucy Dimbylow puts these questions to the teachers who use reading schemes in the classroom.
or Register to add to your saved resources
Which reading schemes are commonly used in schools?
Primary schools have a range of reading schemes to choose from. The most popular include Oxford Reading Tree (ORT), Collins Big Cat and Rigby Star, but other schemes are also used, including Lighthouse, Storyworlds and New Reading 360. Some schools continue to use older series, such as Ginn and New Way.
Download a FREE phonics pack
- Phonics phases sound mats
- 5 phonics games
- Plus access hundreds more phonics worksheets when you register for FREE
Download Pack & Register For FREE
At Rickleton Primary School in Sunderland, children follow the ORT programme. “The books are new, bright and fresh, and the stories are about events that children can relate to,” explains literacy coordinator Nicola Simpson. Meanwhile, at Headley Park Primary School, Bristol, teachers use the Success For All scheme in class – a programme based around proper children’s books – and Collins Big Cat as take-home books. “Success For All gives a good foundation in phonics, while the Big Cat books are a lot more inspiring than the old, tatty home readers that they were chosen to replace,” says deputy head Tim Browse.
“It’s common for schools to use a combination of reading schemes,” says Sophie Quarterman, ORT’s marketing manager. “Some follow the system rigidly, but others mix and match, using one or more schemes.”
How are the schemes devised?
Reading schemes are developed in conjunction with literacy experts. ORT, for example, is supported by Debbie Hepplewhite, creator of the synthetic phonics programme used in schools. Most schemes begin in the Foundation Stage and progressively become more difficult. ‘For example, Key Stage 1 books are written with a mix of high-frequency and decodable words to develop a range of reading strategies, while Key Stage 2 books cover a wide range of genres and subjects, linking to the curriculum,’ explains Louisa Combs, marketing executive for Collins Big Cat.
How many books do children read at each stage?
The number of books at each level depends on how much practice children need at that stage.
Many schemes also have offshoots alongside the core texts. “In addition to the classic Biff, Chip and Kipper texts, ORT offers other strands, such as Songbirds Phonics, Snapdragon variety fiction, and Fireflies non-fiction, to develop children’s reading range,” says Sophie Quarterman.
What do the different levels mean?
Children learn to read at their own pace, but as a guide, the most popular reading schemes are broken down as follows:
Oxford Reading Tree
Stage 1 | 3. 5 to 4.5 years |
Stage 1+ | 4.5 to 5 years |
Stage 2 | 4.5 to 5 years |
Stage 3 | 5 to 5.5 years |
Stage 4 | 5 to 5.5 years |
Stage 5 | 5.5 to 6 years |
Stage 6 | 6 to 6.5 years |
Stage 7 | 6.5 to 7 years |
Stage 8 | 7 to 7.5 years |
Stage 9 | 7.5 to 8 years |
Collins Big Cat, Rigby Star and Lighthouse
Reception: lilac, pink A/B, red A/B
Year 1: yellow, blue, green
Year 2: orange, turquoise, purple, gold, white, lime
What other resources are available?
Most schemes have additional resources that support their core texts. ORT’s add-ons include CD-ROMs, talking stories, puppets, stickers, comprehension sheets and software, with free eBooks and Biff, Chip and Kipper games.
Collins Big Cat also offers a selection of apps.
Do all schools use reading schemes?
No – Highgate Primary School in London is one such school. ‘We use real books, as we find them more stimulating,’ explains Headteacher William Dean. “If children learn to enjoy books, their reading ability will follow.”
How can you help if your child is lagging behind?
“Children learn to read at different rates, so it shouldn’t become competitive,” says William Dean. “If your child is struggling, don’t push him to read, but keep reading to him, and talk about what you read. This will help him to become inquisitive about books and want to read for himself.”
“One good strategy is to take the focus off reading aloud,” adds Tim Browse. “Instead, let him read a page to himself, and then ask him questions about it. When children are learning to read, it’s difficult for them to take in the message of the story if all their attention is on reading aloud. ”
How will your child make the transition to normal books?
Many schools allow children to become ‘free readers’ and choose their own books once they finish the reading scheme. Others use a combination of readers and normal books throughout, for example by sending home one reader and one normal book to read together. “Ideally, though, there shouldn’t be a transition,” says William Dean. “Even where schools use reading schemes, children should be enjoying normal books alongside, at school and at home. Reading high-quality books is the best way to encourage a love of reading.”
Find out more about what children learn in Key stage 1 English to understand what they’ll be taught in reading, writing, and speaking and listening.
More like this
5 ways to boost your early reader's confidence
The science of school reading schemes
Best reading scheme books for early readers
How early readers can help your child love books
10 ways to boost phonics confidence
Primary literacy glossary for parents
Teachers' tricks for phonics
Reading comprehension explained for parents
What is a free reader?
Reading Schemes, Reading Levels and Book Bands — Scanning Pens Blog
Learning to read is an exciting and important part of our early educational experiences. But it’s important to make sure that during these early days in school we’re reading the right thing for our skill level, and making sure that we’re developing our reading as well as enjoying the narrative.
That’s why reading schemes (sometimes called ‘reading programmes’) and reading levels exist – to ensure that we’re constantly progressing, and getting ready to tackle the next stages.
So… what’s a Reading Scheme?
A reading scheme is a series of books that have been carefully created to support the reading process. They’ll start off with books with simple narratives, using simple lexis and uncomplicated plots, and gradually the titles will get more complex and challenging as the series goes on. There’s also an evolving blend of words and pictures – early books on the scheme will have most of the page taken up with an image, and the reading phase is mostly about looking, finding, discussing and relating key words with the image readers see. The illustration largely conveys more of the story than the text does, but this changes as readers move up the reading scheme. As they progress, images will become smaller and less important to understanding the story – the text will take over the narrative as their comprehension increases.
All reading schemes have a carefully designed structure to them, that introduces these new challenges at a rate that a developing reader can deal with. Books that are too hard can be frustrating and risk putting a child off reading, and whilst books that are easy and can be fun, they’re not adding that element of challenge that develops reading skills further. Reading schemes are about being able to find a happy medium, a book that’s easy enough to understand (or mostly), and difficult enough to keep those skills moving forwards.
…And what are Reading Levels?
‘Reading levels’ are the different skill bands within a reading scheme. They’ll range from very simple books for beginner readers to more complex ones for more confident readers. There are a number of different ‘levelling’ book systems in use today, including Oxford Levels, Reading Recovery Levels, Read, Write, Inc. , and Cliff Moon Levels. The most commonly used, though, are Book Bands.
Ok, ok. And what are Book Bands exactly?
These are a popular system that uses a coloured band to designate between different skill levels. There’s a whole rainbow of colours to choose from, and each colour corresponds to a level of reading fluency and developing skill. They range from a pink band books that are aimed at very early developing readers, to a turquoise band for progressing readers, to a lime book band, for readers who have developed fluency and are taking on more advanced texts with confidence. There are higher levels beyond these too, brown, grey, dark blue and dark red, however these are more to do with a title’s age appropriateness than a reflection of reading confidence and skill.
Book Bands can also be translated across most other schemes using a chart like this one, designed to compare Oxford Level with the appropriate Book Band.
So how do you progress using Book Bands?
The point at which a child ‘moves up a band’ is often to do with a number of factors including their confidence as well as their skill. Children develop reading skills at different rates, so it’s important to remember that staying longer in a band than their peers doesn’t mean they’re growing up to be a weak reader – it could just mean that they’ve still got work to do on their pronunciation, fluency or expression. Often during the early years of their reading journey they’ll move up a band quite quickly, and this will slow down as they become more confident, bands get larger, and the breadth of materials available to them widens.
And what happens next?
After they’ve got to the end of the Book Band system, most developing readers are ready to start tacking books that are off-system (even though they probably have been already), and making their own decisions about what’s an appropriate level of ease and challenge. We call this ‘free reading’, and it means that they’re ready to take on a much greater wealth of information, as well as start exploring other forms of writing like non-fiction, poetry, biography and more. It’s a watershed point in any educational career, and it means that as well as developing the ability to read a wide range of materials for pleasure, they’re also getting ready to take on different modes of study and start learning more independently too. It’s an exciting time, and should be celebrated – but it’s important to celebrate the smaller milestones too, and make sure that at every step of the way, reading continues to be encouraged and rewarded both in class and at home.
Reading technique for grades 1-4
Reading is one of the basic skills for every child. Being able to read is important not only for the lessons of literature and the Russian language, but also for all other sciences. It will be difficult for a student to learn material in mathematics, English or the world around him if he does not know how to quickly familiarize himself with the text and understand what he read. It is reading that opens the door to the world of knowledge. Mastering cognitive texts or works of art, children learn to communicate, learn about the surrounding reality, and broaden their horizons. Cognitive abilities are also honed - memory, attention. Therefore, reading is considered the basis of success in further education.
But how do you know if a child reads well for his age or not? This can be done by checking the reading technique. Many parents do not quite understand the format and meaning of this test, believing that the determining criterion is speed, that is, the number of words read per minute. In fact, the test is focused on assessing not only the pace of reading, but also other skills. Let's try to deal with the requirements prescribed for reading technique in the Federal Standards.
Reading technique: basic criteria
How fast should you read? Is everything okay with a child with technology? Perhaps his skills do not meet some standards? These questions always concern responsible parents. And I must say that there is nothing wrong with this excitement, because involvement in the process of teaching children is in many ways the key to future success. But is it really worth worrying about reading speed?
To answer this question, it is necessary to understand in detail what exactly is assessed when testing reading technique. According to the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard, the following are assessed:
- reading speed - the number of characters that a child is able to read in one minute;
- way of reading - reading words syllable by syllable or whole, smoothly;
- correctness - the absence of errors and hesitations made by the child when reading;
- awareness - the ability to understand the meaning and idea of what is read;
- expressiveness - the ability to correctly place stresses, observe intonation and maintain pauses when reading.
Analyzing the listed criteria, we can say that the test of reading technique is based on the assessment of two components: semantic and technical. At the same time, the technical side - tempo, expressiveness, correctness - is subordinated to the semantic, that is, the ability to understand the content of the text.
Reading technique: what is really important?
Reading is the most important type of speech activity, based on the ability to perceive and assimilate information. Unlike drawings, diagrams and video sequences, it activates the imagination. Scientists have proven that when reading poetry, other areas of the brain are involved than when mastering prose. This fact is explained by the different structure of phrases and phrases used in prose and poetry. Therefore, the ability to read can be considered as a tool for self-development. But this is not a basic skill, but acquired in the learning process. And here it is important not to force things, but to focus on the abilities and capabilities of the child.
It must be understood that reading technique is just one of the criteria, and it is not necessary to focus only on it. Especially parents whose children are not yet in school. Don't just chase the pace. At this stage, it is more important to broaden your horizons, get acquainted with different topics, memorize new words. And the best way to achieve this is to read a lot, daily, but not to put speed at the forefront.
As far as schoolchildren are concerned, two parameters essentially matter here: technique and meaningfulness of reading. Technique is usually called the ability to distinguish letters, transform them into sounds, compose syllables and words. Meaningfulness is a deeper concept. It is based on understanding the meaning and content of the text.
It would be erroneous to require a child to make sense of what they read until they have developed the skill of technical letter recognition. All the efforts of the crumbs, who are just learning to read, are aimed at memorizing and recognizing letters, syllables, words. In order to understand the essence of what is written in the text, he no longer has any intellectual strength or time. Therefore, primary education teachers first focus on technology, and only when it is brought to automatism, they begin to form a meaningful approach to reading.
Reading speed standards for elementary school
Reading speed standards adopted for elementary school students:
- Grade 1: 1st semester - 20-25 words per minute, 2nd semester - 30-40 words;
- Grade 2: I half-year - 40-50 words; II half-year - 50-60 words;
- Grade 3: I half-year - 60-70 words; II half-year - 70-80 words per minute;
- Grade 4: 1st half year – 80-90 words per minute; end of the school year - 100-120 words.
In classes and schools for gifted children, the rate of reading may be higher. So, in the first grade, such children read more than 60 words per minute, in the second - 90-95, in the third - 95-105 words per minute. The pace when reading to yourself should be 20-50 words faster than when reading aloud.
Other test parameters
And a few more parameters that you should pay attention to:
- Grade 1 - the student can read a significant part of the text by syllables.
- Grade 2 - higher requirements are imposed on reading technique: only complex words can be read by syllables, it is important to observe pauses and correctly place stresses.
- Grade 3 - reading must be conscious and expressive, with observance of intonation. In order to correctly assess the skills of the child, retelling is practiced.
- Grade 4 - the student should be able to analyze what he has read and express his personal opinion.
Focusing on the standard, we can draw some conclusions about the effectiveness of training. But even if the child cannot read the number of words prescribed in the standards, you should not worry too much about it. After all, these are just average standards developed on the basis of general data. Each student has their own level and pace of development. Checking the technique is rather information for the teacher and parents. After analyzing the results, you can understand in which aspects of training you need to show more diligence.
Testing your reading skills yourself
You can organize a reading test at home, but don't turn it into an exam. Some children are quite sensitive to any tests, and in stressful situations they cannot always demonstrate everything they are capable of. Come up with a game format or check the technique discreetly. If the child himself wants to know what success he has achieved, then no problems will arise.
Action sequence:
- Arm yourself with a watch with a second hand. To check, you can use a stopwatch on your smartphone, but it’s better to refuse an hourglass, since a child who has never seen such a thing will be distracted by them.
- Prepare a text and show it to the child.
- Ask to read the text aloud.
- The time should be recorded from the start of reading.
- If you notice that a child has made a mistake, do not stop him, but simply make a note for yourself.
- Rate the result. To get the most objective picture of the student's skills, you should conduct a control check and compare the results.
If you see that the child is not concentrated enough, he is in a bad mood or is not feeling well, check the reading technique on another day.
Correctly evaluate the result
Count the number of words read. Points to pay attention to when counting:
- conjunctions, particles, prepositions consisting of one or two letters are counted as one word;
- when wrapping, the word is counted not as one, but as two;
- words with a hyphen are counted differently: if there are three or more letters on both sides of the hyphen, then the word is counted as two, less than three letters - as one word.
Not only speed is important, but other criteria as well. Be sure to evaluate the correctness of the text you read. All mistakes made should be sorted out with the child. If you notice that there are a lot of hesitations, corrections, changes in endings and whole words, you should consult with the teacher. Perhaps professional correction of reading skills is needed.
It is also important to understand how well the child understood the meaning of the text. It is not necessary to ask the student to retell what they have read. It is enough that he describes the content in a few words. Ask him to identify the main idea. If there are problems with this, then you can resort to retelling.
Pay attention to expressiveness. The student should try to observe intonation, pause in accordance with punctuation marks. Unfortunately, not all children are able to read a passage with an expression. Tell the child in which places you need to increase the pace and emotionality, which words need to be emphasized.
Requirements for texts used to test reading skills
When choosing a text, adhere to the following recommendations:
- It should be a text unfamiliar to the child, but not too complex, age appropriate.
- Pay attention to the structure of sentences: they should be short, without dialogues and a lot of punctuation marks.
- It is better to choose text without pictures.
- Font size is also important - it should be large enough.
- Text must not be split into two pages.
Of course, you shouldn't check your reading technique using the instructions for household appliances or a manual for housewives. The best option is short stories about nature, animals, seasons.
Tips for Improving Reading Technique
If your test results don't meet the standards, don't get upset. But what really needs to be done is to put more diligence and not be lazy to practice. You can seek help from specialists or deal with the child on your own. But just remember that you need to do at least 15 minutes every day.
There are many exercises to improve reading technique:
- reading the same text several times in a row with a gradual increase in pace;
- "buzzing reading" - daily five minutes of reading in a low voice;
- "gibberish writing" - the use of texts in which some of the letters are written upside down;
- "word search" - an exercise to search for a specific word in the text;
- exercise with syllabic tables.
This is just a part of the exercises to improve your reading technique. There are also recommendations for working on literacy, expressiveness, understanding the meaning of what is read:
- if there are problems with diction, you should focus on tongue twisters;
- in order for the child to better understand the meaning of what he read, ask him to retell texts more often, make plans, draw illustrations for any passage;
- Poems are most suitable for improving the expressiveness of reading. Only you need to recite them not quietly and calmly, but loudly and emotionally.
It is believed that the speed of reading should be comparable to conversational speech. This opinion is shared by both distinguished teachers and young innovative teachers. On average, 120-150 words per minute - it was to this pace that the human articulatory apparatus adapted over several centuries of evolution. Of course, such indicators are applicable for middle and high school students, but this does not mean that they should not be strived for. After all, all the basic skills laid down in the primary grades will definitely come in handy in the future. The ability to read an average of 120 words will allow you to quickly master the material and cope with tasks. Naturally, provided that this is a conscious reading with an understanding of the meaning. Therefore, you need to work on the technique and pace of reading constantly.
High speed reading comprehension levels. Speed reading. How to remember more by reading 8 times faster
High speed reading comprehension levels
As I mentioned at the beginning of the book, when learning some skills, practice is more important than understanding. Sometimes it comes only after the development of the skill. This is largely true for reading over 1200 wpm. And once you start practicing this skill, and I asked you to train at over 1800 words per minute for maximum efficiency, it will sometimes be difficult for you to maintain reading comprehension at the proper level.
The following list is an attempt to describe the various stages you will go through as you develop the ability to extract more and more information from the words you see when reading at very high speed. Study it carefully and try to keep this in mind during your daily workouts. If you feel frustrated, go back to the list and see where you are. If, after a few days of practice, you find that you need a higher level of understanding, choose an easier book to work with. As your understanding improves, you can move on to more complex material.
As you develop your ability to absorb information at a high reading speed, you will most likely go through the stages described below.
1. Words . You can see all the words and understand that they are all written in your native language or in any other language you can read.
2. Single phrases . Individual words and phrases catch your eye, but you get almost no idea about the content of the text as a whole.
3. Meaning appears and disappears . If you use a fiction book for practice, you start to catch the meaning of the text from time to time; if it is non-fiction or non-fiction, then you understand the theme of the text.
4. Main storyline : connecting the meaning of individual episodes into a single whole. You can follow the main storyline (when reading fiction) or grasp the main ideas (when reading non-fiction and non-fiction), but you miss out on a lot.
5. Reading. You understand what you're reading as you read, even though you can't remember what the text was about afterwards (this takes a lot of practice).
Practice #9
Materials: base list
Purpose: learn to quickly determine which level the third sentence of paragraph
belongs toTask: see how many paragraphs you can analyze in 6 minutes
Estimated execution time: 10 minutes
This exercise can only be performed once during one session
1. Select a paragraph with at least three sentences. Read it as quickly as possible, using your hand, trying to understand what it is about.
Draw a linear memory scheme and write on it, without looking into the text, the topic of the paragraph. Don't add any details.
2. Go back to what you read and analyze the first three sentences.
Complete your linear memory scheme by reflecting the levels of the first three sentences on it.
An example of the exercise is shown below.
EXAMPLE. A. Wordsworth believed that each person can find a state of joy and harmony in life, which will change his whole existence, in nature. B. Spurgeon referred to his poetry as a set of notes and research devoted to a practical and detailed explanation of how such perception can be achieved. B. Wordsworth's description of the method of immersion in such a state emphasizes the importance of the practice of a passive attitude.
Or to save time:
3. Continue the exercise by analyzing the first three sentences in other paragraphs (not consecutive). See how many paragraphs you can work through in 6 minutes. Record the result in a progress report.
Practice #10
Materials: simple books
Purpose: high speed visual reading training
Task: try to follow the storyline (or at least its scattered parts) while reading at high speed
Estimated execution time: 10 minutes
This exercise can be repeated
Explanation
1. Select a chapter or chapter section containing approximately 10 pages; the book should be relatively simple or one that you have already read before.
2. Using the "dust erase" motion, move down the page, spending no more than 3 seconds per page (if you feel more comfortable, you can count first: one, two, three, etc.). Make a diagonal memory scheme. Remember everything you can, even things you're not quite sure about. Most likely, you will not be able to remember much, except for proper names.
3. Repeat the same section using a circular motion with your hand, “underlining” one line, then moving down and circling the three or more lines below, moving from right to left, spending no more than 3 seconds per 1 page (about 7 full movements). Complete your memory scheme with whatever information you can.
4. Work through the same section using the "outline" motion, "underlining" one line, then moving down and back from right to left, spending no more than 12 seconds per page (about 6 full strokes).
Reading Goal: try to follow the storyline, even if it is in disjointed parts (even if the meaning comes and goes), while maintaining an acceptable speed for visual reading (at least 1600 words per minute).
5. Calculate the speed of the practice reading in step 4 and record it in the progress report. Find the total number of words in a section or chapter, to do this, first calculate the average number of words on one full page, then multiply it by the number of pages: for example, 240 words per page? 8. 5 pages = 2040 words. Divide the total number of words by the amount of time spent: for example, 2040 words: 1.5 minutes = 1360 words per minute.
CAUTION. Step 4 practice reading must be done at a speed of at least 1600 words per minute (in the example shown, the speed is not fast enough!).
Practice #11
Materials: simple books
Purpose: very high speed visual reading training
Task: to reach the mark made during the practice reading
Estimated execution time: 15 minutes
This exercise can be repeated
Explanation
1. Put a mark 1 where you will start to perform the "trace paragraphs" movement.
Practice reading, starting at mark 1, for 1 minute, spending no more than 6 movements per page.
Mark the place where you left off with the number 2. Start drawing up a memorization scheme by writing the topic of the read text on the diagonal line.
2. Repeat the practice reading of the same text, trying to increase the speed and move further. Mark the new end of the reading with the number 3. Complete your memorization scheme.
3. Measure out a new passage of text, starting at mark 3 and ending with a new mark 4, which is approximately the length of the passage between marks 1 and 3.
Perform a practice reading of the passage between marks 1 and 4 for 1 minute using the dust-erase or paragraph-circle motion.
4. Measure out a new passage of text, starting at mark 3 and ending with a new mark 5, which is approximately the length of the passage between marks 3 and 4.
Practice reading the passage between marks 1 and 5 for 1 minute.
5. Go back to mark 3 and start practicing reading as fast as you can with "circling paragraphs" for 1 minute, trying to follow the storyline (not necessarily successfully).
Mark the new end of the reading with an X. Complete your memorization scheme.
Calculate the reading speed between marks 3 and X and enter it in the progress report.
Practice #12
Materials: basic list and books from list compiled for chapter 1
Goal: practice reading at three times your original speed
Challenge: maintain three times your original speed while retaining some reading comprehension
Estimated execution time: 15 minutes
This exercise can be repeated
Chart
Find the initial reading speed and round it up to tens.
Measure out five passages of text, each containing a word count that is six times your original reading speed.
Explanation
1. Take the initial reading speed that you calculated in Chapter 2, for example, 248 words per minute. Round that number down to the nearest tens, in this case 240 words per minute. Multiply this result by six: 6? 240 = 1440. Measure out five passages of text containing approximately that number of words. Mark the end of each of these passages with a paperclip or paper clip, or with a small piece of paper extending from the edge of the page.
2. Using your hand to keep pace with your reading, try to read the first passage in 2 minutes. You can use any of the learned hand movements at your discretion.
Purpose of reading: approximately track the storyline and try to reach the mark even if you lose understanding of the meaning of the text.
3. Continue with the exercise, trying to read each passage in no more than 2 minutes. Be sure to try to reach the mark!
4. Calculate the reading speed of any passage and enter it in the progress report.
This text is an introductory fragment.
Double/Triple Speed Exercise
Double/Triple Speed Exercise This new exercise gives truly stunning results; when done correctly, you will see how incredibly fast reading speed can be. This exercise is based on a slightly different approach than the previous ones. Although it is
Chapter 15 Learn to Read at the Speed of Thought
Chapter 15 Learn to read at the speed of thought There are a huge number of people who can read at a speed of several thousand words per minute and still understand the text well. There are also many who read slowly and have a poor understanding of the material. And there are those who
Reading at high speed feels different
Reading at high speed feels different When reading quickly, the feeling is completely different. You may have experienced this to some extent. You are much less likely to mentally pronounce words (remember that we cannot completely get rid of this habit), so
Chapter 16 How to learn to understand text well when reading at high speed
Chapter 16 How to learn to understand text well when reading at high speed There are three basic rules that determine how quickly you can read and understand what you read. At this stage, they will probably seem obvious to you, since you have been for a long time
The practice of reading at high speed also helps with slower reading
Practicing reading at high speed helps with slower reading as well. Although you will of course remember that we are working on developing speed and reading comprehension individually, you should also know that in order to increase your low reading speed, you
Hand movements while reading narrow columns
Hand movements when reading narrow columns Most newspaper columns are quite narrow, usually a little narrower than the ideal width of ten centimeters. When reading narrow columns, it is most convenient to apply the movement using one finger. Two of these movements, most
BASIC RULES FOR READING
BASIC RULES FOR READING When reading, the following rules should be observed.